Theories and stages of learning

• Operant Conditioning


  Involves "shaping" behaviour using trial and error followed by reinforcement – hence behaviour is modified. This theory only works if reinforcement is present!
• Operant Conditioning


  1. Child learns to shoot by shooting over and over (massed practice) (trial and error)

  2. Child misses - coach doesn't respond (trial and error)

  3. Child shoots again – misses – coach doesn't respond (trial and error)

  4. Child shoots again – scores – ball goes into the basket - coach says 'well done' - child replicates behaviour (positive reinforcement)

  5. Child shoots again – having learnt a technique that gets the ball in they replicate this – child scores - coach says 'well done' - child replicates behaviour (positive reinforcement)
• Punishment


  Punishment of a non-desirable behaviour - (adding)
• Negative Reinforcement


  Removes something unpleasant/adverse from the situation when the desired response occurs
• Negative Reinforcement


  • Coach stops shouting instructions at the player when they make a successful cross
  • Basketball player's coach made him do sprints for every bad pass and when they made a successful pass he doesn't have to run sprints anymore
• Operant Conditioning - Skinner's Rats

  1. Stimulus - Rat sees the light

  2. Response - rat hits the lever

  3. Reinforcement - every time the rat hits the leaver it gets food - which it likes

  4. The rat is conditioned through trial, error and reinforcement

  5. When rat misses the leaver or touches the lever at the wrong time – no food and thus, no reinforcement

  6. When the rat hits the lever he gets food = happy rat = rat keeps hitting the lever
• Thorndike's Laws


  • Law of effect: positive reinforcement increases the chances of the behaviour recurring whereas negative reinforcement or even punishment will decrease the SR Bond
  • Law of exercise: Repeating or rehearsing the S-R connections is more likely to strengthen them. If the desired response occurs then reinforcement is absolutely necessary
  • Law of readiness: The learner must be physically and mentally able to complete the task effectively
• Operant Conditioning


  Concerned with relationship between an environmental stimulus and a movement response
• Operant Conditioning in Badminton

  • Stimulus: the shuttle may be hit high & deep into the opponents court
  • Response: receiver plays an overhead clear shot
  • Reinforcement - Coach – verbal reinforcement – 'excellent, well done'
  • Result: Response becomes associated with the stimulus and is stored in the long term memory as a learning bond which can then be recalled and repeated in similar conditions – thus you become better at executing the overhead clear at the right time. Reinforcement is evident so the S-R response is strengthened
• Operant Conditioning in Sport - As a coach, how can we use our knowledge to ensure that desirable behaviours of our players are repeated and that behaviour is learnt?
• Cognitive Theories of Learning


  Cognitivist theory is based around seeing the problem as a whole and devising strategies to solve the problem individually using reflection / problem solving. No trial and error within this theory…instead concerned with the learner thinking & understanding to solve problems. ('Eureka')
• Cognitive Theorists


  • Gestaltists - group of German Psychologists who looked at how humans solve problems – believed that problems should be presented whole rather than in small parts - didn't believe in SR bonds
  • Insight Learning – Problem solving involving memory – you use your memory and understanding to piece together problems, coming to a resolve
  • Intervening Variables – mental processes occurring between the stimulus being received and the response being formulated (cognition – thinking)
• Cognitive Learning in Badminton

  • Noticing the movement of your opponent and playing the shuttle to where they are not
• Cognitive Learning in Sport - As a coach how do you use cognitive theory to help you coach?
• Cognitive Theory of Learning

  • 1. Learning is best achieved by presenting the whole skill to the learner
  • 2. Learning takes place in a realistic situation
  • 3. Learner must understand and think about the problem as a whole/ requires insight/ problem solving
  • 4. Not just a case of stimulus-response (no stimulus response / trial and error / reinforcement), there are mental processes, known as intervening variables, which occur between a stimulus being received before learner performs a response
  • 5. Learner uses mental rehearsal / reminiscence/ perception to aid learning
• Drawbacks of Cognitive Theory

  • The skill maybe too complex for a beginner (cognitive learners) to learn as a whole
  • The skill maybe too dangerous for a beginner (cognitive learners) as a whole
• Social Learning / Observational Learning

  Performers learn new skills by observing significant others (people who hold authority or who we would like to be like – role models – coaches / parents / teachers / players). Human beings like to be accepted by others and thus, we observe (watch) and copy behaviour because it helps become part of a group or become more socially acceptable.
• Bandura's 4 Stages of Observational Learning

  1. Attention - Performers need to watch a suitable demonstration of the skill. This must be aimed at their ability level, performed correctly by a role model or competent peer and making sure cues are identified

  2. Retention - Creating the mental picture of the skill required. Practising the skill in your mind over and over so that the correct movements are performed in the correct order

  3. Motor Reproduction - The physical movement to perform the skill. Learners must have the ability to be able to repeat the skill either first time or through a series of progressions

  4. Motivation - The learners need, want or desire to replicate the skilled action
• Social Learning Theory / Observational Learning - As a coach how do you use Social / Observational learning to enhance your coaching and players learning?
• Cognitive theory of learning


  A theory that considers how people learn through mental processes like perception, memory, and problem-solving
• Cognitive theory of learning

  • Strengths: Considers insight learning, problem solving through reflection, that humans can problem solve independently using cognition
  • Weaknesses: Doesn't consider that some learners may need to watch a demonstration or need reinforcement through reward/punishment to learn a skill
• Motor skill


  A function involving the precise movement of muscles to perform a specific act
• Kinaesthetic sense


  Also called "muscle memory", the awareness of our own movement, e.g. walking, eating, writing, based on proprioception (awareness of joint position)
• Stages of learning motor skills

  1. Cognitive (beginner)

  2. Associative

  3. Autonomous (elite)
• Cognitive/Understanding stage


  • Execution of skill is inconsistent and not guaranteed, movement is jerky/lacks flow, relies on coach for cues, success rate 2-3 out of 10, requires reinforcement through feedback
• Associative/Verbal Motor stage


  • Execution becoming more consistent as motor programs form, simpler parts fluent but complex parts require attention, starting to get kinaesthetic feedback, movement has flow and is smoother, success rate 5-7 out of 10, starting to self-detect and correct errors
• Autonomous/Motor stage


  • Execution consistent, fluid and aesthetically pleasing, movement has flow and is smooth, motor programs well-learned and stored in long-term memory, spare attention can focus on tactics, must be constantly practiced to retain, success rate 9 out of 10
• Appropriate theory of learning for each stage

  Cognitive stage - Operant conditioning (reinforcement through feedback)

  Associative stage - Cognitive theory (developing internal feedback and self-correction)

  Autonomous stage - Cognitive theory (well-learned motor programs freeing up attention)
• The video nicely highlights the development of the performer through the stages of learning
• The type of skill being executed in the video is not specified