atypical development

• The DNA of 112 MtF transsexuals was studied and found they're more likely to have a longer version of the androgen receptor gene than ‘normal’ sample. The effect of this abnormality is reduced action of testosterone, may have effects in gender development. The brain sex theory is based on male and female brains are different, so trans' brains don’t match their sex. Region of the brain studied is BSTc in the thalamus. Averagly, the BSTc is 2x as large in men than women, & twice the number of neurons. So, gender dysphoria says the size of the BSTc correlates with preferred sex not biological.
• 2 Dutch studies found the number of neurons in the BSTc of MtF transsexuals was similar to the females. The number of neurons in the FtMs was found to be in the male range. Neuroscientists suggested that gender dysphoria is an innate form of phantom limb syndrome. People who have a limb amputated often report they feel it is still there. For example, they feel itches in the limb. It was demonstrated that this occurs because the brain is ‘cross-wired’.
• The part of the brain that received input from the amputated limb is taken over by a different part of the body, such as a cheek. In the case of gender dysphoria, its proposed that the image of sex organs is innately hardwired into a brain, the opposite to the biological sex. Such cross-wiring means some males feel they shouldn’t have a penis, and some females feel they should. It is estimated that 2/3 of FtM transsexuals report the sensation of a phantom penis, including phantom erections.
• Not all biological causes are internal or genetic. Environmental pollution may be causing problems. The pesticide DDT contains oestrogen which means males can be prenatally exposed to unduly high levels of female hormones causing mismatch between genetic sex and hormone influences. Boys who had mothers exposed to dioxins promoting oestrogen had more feminised play. There are also social explanations.
• . A number of psychologists have proposed that gender dysphoria is related to mental illness which can be linked to childhood trauma. Coates produced a case history of a boy who developed gender dysphoria proposing this was a defensive reaction to the boy’s mother’s depression following an abortion. The trauma occurred at age 3 when development is sensitive. Coates suggests that this was due to trauma making cross gender fantasy to resolve the anxiety. Stoller proposed that gender dysphoria results from distorted personal attitudes.
• In interviews, those diagnosed Coates observed that they displayed overly close mother-son relationships. This would be likely to lead to greater female identification and confused gender identity. In the case of FtM its suggested that females identify as males due to severe paternal rejection in early childhood. If they become male, they then may be accepted by father.
• Research on gender dysphoria has potential social consequences for individuals.

  If a biological cause is identified, this may help other people to be more accepting about the needs of transsexuals eg saying its not their fault. on the other hand, it may harm individuals born with the abnormality as it may be assumed (wrongly) that it is then inevitable. 

  This shows that both doing research and doing no research may have social consequences for individuals represented by this research.
• research into MtF transexuals has identified types of gender dysphoria. 

  Blanchard 1985 proposed 2 distinctive groups: 'homosexual transexuals' who change gender due to being attracted to men and 'non-homosexual transexuals' who change due to being autogynephilic (sexually aroused at the thought of them being a women.  

  Such research suggests that there are likely to be different explanations for different types of gender dysphoria.
• There is support for cross wiring explanation by comparing gender dysphoria individuals and non-gender dysphoria individuals who have had surgery to remove sex organs (eg for cancer).

  Around 60% of non-gender dysphoria men who have had penis amputation experience a phantom penis, but only 30% of gender dysphoria men have this, suggesting there was no wiring to a -penis representation' in their brain in the first place. 

  This suggests that some transexual adults do have differently wired brains.
• One limitation of brain sex theory is its central claims have been challenged.

  The changes were studied in transgender individual’s brains using MRI scans taken duing hormone treatment. The scans showed the size of the BSTc changed over that period, rather being a difference size before they became to embrace and change to the opposite gender.

  This suggests that the differences in the BSTc may have been an effect of hormone therapy or consequences of becoming transsexual, rather than the biological reason of why they are transsexual.