Atypical Gender Development: Psychological Explanations

• what is the psychodynamic explanation to gender dysphoria?

  • result of attachment difficulties before gender identity has developed, notably separation anxiety.
  • It suggests that children who experience extreme separation anxiety ‘symbiotically fuse’ their identity with the parent that they are separated from.
  • These coping strategies include fantasising about his mother and adopting her roles and behaviours (symbiotic fusion). This will result in the boy identifying with his mother, leading to a female gender identity rather than a male’s.
• what is the cognitive explanation to gender dysphoria?

  • gender schemas adopted by children to develop their gender identity should be dominated by in-group schemas (schemas and rules about their own gender).
  • According to this paradigm, gender dysphoria occurs as a result of dual schema pathways.
  • This occurs when the child develops an understanding of in and out-group schemas (schemas and rules about the opposite gender) and shows a preference for roles and behaviours of the out-group.
• what is the social explanation to gender dysphoria?

  • a learned behaviour and the result of being reinforced for cross-gendered behaviours (for example, a boy playing with makeup).
  • Usually, parents and peers will positively reinforce appropriate gender behaviours and punish cross-gendered behaviours, and this results in stereotypical gender identity for boys and girls.
  • For people with gender dysphoria, it is suggested that children have been positively reinforced for behaviours that are more typical of the opposite sex.
• evaluating psychological explanations of gender dysphoria (1)

  • One advantage of psychological theories of gender dysphoria is that there is research support. Gladue (1985) supports the role of social influences in gender dysphoria. There were very little differences in hormone levels found when male homosexuals, male heterosexuals and males with gender dysphoria were investigated. The absence of hormonal differences suggests that biology is not the cause of gender dysphoria and that social factors such as parental reinforcement are more important.
• evaluating psychological explanations of gender dysphoria (2)

  • fail to explain anomalies. many children are positively reinforced for appropriate gender behaviours who still prefer to adopt cross-gendered roles. If positive reinforcement was the sole factor for gender dysphoria, then social theory fails to explain why some children are unresponsive. In addition, some children are not deterred by any punishment that follows cross-gendered behaviours. This would suggest that gender dysphoria is not a learned behaviour and is the result of other influences such as cognitions or biology.
• evaluating psychological explanations of gender dysphoria (3)

  • socially sensitive: psychological theories may be criticised for suggesting that there is some ‘choice’ involved. Cognitive theories that suggest children prefer their out-group schemas can be criticised for being socially sensitive, promoting the idea that individuals choose to live as the opposite sex. This approach does not acknowledge that individuals with gender dysphoria experience distress, stigma and prejudice from society and that no individual is likely to choose this.
• evaluating psychological explanations of gender dysphoria (4)

  • Psychological theories of gender dysphoria can be criticised for taking a nomothetic approach to the disorder. For example, the social theory takes a nomothetic view, claiming that everyone who experiences positive reinforcement for cross-gender behaviours will develop gender dysphoria. Although this approach allows a general rule to be established, it assumes that a ‘one size fits all’ theory of gender dysphoria is appropriate; however, this is not the case. The condition is extremely complex, and one theory alone cannot explain