Women

• In a nutshell


  Women have historically been underrepresented and misrepresented in stereotypical roles within mainstream media.

  This has been through symbolic annihilation, the cult of femininity and the male gaze. But have things have changed in recent decades?
• Under-representation and symbolic annihilation - Gaye Tuchman


  Gaye Tuchman (1978) developed the concept of Symbolic Annihilation to refer to the under-representation of women in a narrow range of social roles, while men were represented in a full range of social and occupational roles.

  Tuchman also argued that women’s achievements were often not reported or trivialised and often seen as less important than things like their looks. Women were also often represented in roles linked to gender stereotypes, particularly those related to housework and motherhood.
• Ferguson (1980) 


  Ferguson (1980) conducted a content analysis of women’s magazines from the end of WWII to 1980 and found that representations were organized around what she called the cult of femininity, based on traditional, stereotypical female roles and values: caring for others, family, marriage, and concern for appearance.

  Ferguson noted that teenage magazines aimed at girls did offer a broader range of female representations, but there was still a focus on him, home and looking good for him.
• Laura Mulvey ‘The Male Gaze’


  Laura Mulvey studied cinema films and developed the concept of the Male Gaze to describe how the camera lens eyed up the female characters for the sexual viewing pleasure of men.

  The Male Gaze occurs when the camera focuses on women’s bodies, especially breasts, bums and things, and spends too long lingering on these areas when it isn’t necessary.
• Laura Mulvey ‘The Male Gaze’ - 2


  The male gaze of the camera puts the audience in the perspective of the heterosexual men – woman are displayed as a sexual object for both the characters in the film and the spectator – thus the man emerges as the dominant force and the woman is passive under the active (sexual) gaze of the man.

  The overall effect of this is that women become objectified as sex objects, rather than being represented as whole people.

  Mulvey argued that the Male Gaze occurred in film because heterosexual men were in control of the camera.
• Changes to the representations of women?


  The roles of women in society have changed considerably since these historical analyses of women’s representations: since the 1970s women now occupy a much wider range of roles and equality with men.
• Changes to the representations of women? - David Gauntlett


  David Gauntlett in ‘Media Gender and Identity’ argues that there has been an increase in the diversity of representations and roles of women in the media since the 1970s, and a corresponding decrease in stereotypical representations, which broadly reflects wider social changes.
• The persistence of the Beauty Myth?

  Tebbel (2000) argues that women are under more pressure than ever before to conform to the Beauty Myth. She argues that the body and faces of real women have been symbolically annihilated, replaced by computer manipulated, airbrushed, artificially images.

  Killborn argues that media representations present women as ‘mannequins’ – size zero, tall and thin, and with perfect blemish-free skin.

  Orbach further argues that the media continues to associate slimness with health, happiness, success and popularity