Cold War key 2

• Refugee problem in Berlin

  In 1949, Germany had divided into West German and East Germany. West Germany received Marshall Aid and so living standards and salaries became much higher than in East Germany. The government in East Germany was unpopular and there were riots against it in 1953. East Germans could easily travel to Berlin, cross from East Berlin to West Berlin, and then travel freely from West Berlin to West Germany. By 1958, three million East Germans had crossed to the West. This was over a sixth of the population. This caused a problem to East Germany, as a lot of the people were leaving were engineers, technicians and teachers, who they needed to help rebuild the economy.
• Khrushchev's Berlin Ultimatum


  To end the refugee problem, Khrushchev wanted Berlin to become part of East Germany and for western powers to leave. In November 1958, Khrushchev demanded that the Western countries should recognise East Germany as an independent country but they refused. On 27 November he issued his ultimatum. This demanded that Western troops should leave Berlin and Berlin should become a free city. If the West had not agreed within six months, Khrushchev said he would hand over control of all routes into Berlin to the government of East Germany. The West was outraged and accused Khrushchev of trying to spread communism. They did however agree to a number of summits to discuss the problem.
• The summit meetings of 1959-61

  At Geneva in May 1959 the foreign ministers met. No solution was reached but it was agreed Khrushchev and Eisenhower would meet in person. At Camp David in September 1959, the Soviets agreed to withdraw the Ultimatum and that they would hold talks again in the summer. At Paris in May 1960, the Soviets announced that they had shot down an American U-2 spy plane, and that the pilot, Gary Powers, had admitted to being a spy. When Eisenhower refused to apologise, Khrushchev walked out of the meeting. At Vienna in June 1961, Khrushchev believed he could get the better of the new American President, John Kennedy, whose reputation was weakened by the Bay of Pigs. Khrushchev renewed the Berlin Ultimatum. Kennedy refused to make any concessions and the meeting ended. As a result, relations between Kennedy and Khrushchev were strained. Kennedy also decided to increase spending on the American armed forces by over $2 billion.
• The construction of the Berlin Wall

  The East German leader, Walter Ulbricht, asked Kennedy to close the border from East to West Berlin. On the night of 12 August 1961, East German troops built a barbed wire fence between East and West Berlin. A concrete wall was then built, which stretch 165 km. Over time, it was reinforced with barbed wire, minefields, and car-barriers. The heavily-guarded area immediately next to the wall on the Soviet side was called the 'death strip'. The wall could only be crossed, with the correct paperwork, at a few heavily manned checkpoints, the most famous being Checkpoint Charlie.
• The Cuban Revolution


  In 1952, Cuba had been taken over by Batista, a very US-friendly dictator. Batista allowed US firms special privileges in Cuba, and the US Mafia ran organised crime. A Cuban lawyer, Fidel Castro, started opposing Batista. He was imprisoned in 1953. In 1955, Castro was released and went into exile in Mexico and then the US. On December 2 1956, Castro and 81 companions invaded Cuba. They spent the next two years fighting Batista using guerrilla tactics. By late December 1958 they were close to the capital, Havana. On 1 January 1959 Batista fled Cuba for the USA, and Castro became leader a week later.
• The Bay of Pigs incident

  Eisenhower agreed a plan with the CIA to overthrow Castro, which Kennedy then inherited when he became President. The plan was for a group of Cuban exiles to be trained to invade Cuba, and then start an anti-Castro revolution and put a pro-US government in charge. On 17 April 1961, around 1,400 Cuban exiles landed on the 'Bay of Pigs' in Cuba. However, Castro's government found out about the invasion, and around 20,000 soldiers were waiting for them. The USA couldn't send American military aid to help the exiles. Ordinary Cubans did not rush to help the exiles. Castro showed evidence of the Cuban victory to the world's media. The invasion had failed.
• The Cuban Missile Crisis


  On 14 October 1962, an American U-2 spy plane took pictures of launch pads for medium-range ballistic missiles on Cuba. These could carry nuclear warheads that could destroy US cities. US intelligence discovered a fleet of Soviet ships sailing to Cuba, presumably with the missiles themselves on board. It was believed the missiles could become operational in two weeks. Kennedy could not allow missiles to be placed on Cuba, but a military response risked all-out war. On 16 October, called an Executive Committee (ExComm) to discuss solutions. 'Hawks' argued for a military response while 'doves' wanted a peaceful solution. On 22 October, Kennedy put a naval blockade around Cuba. On 24 October, the Soviet ships reached the blockade and turned around. On 26 October, Khrushchev sent Kennedy a telegram offering to remove missiles from Cuba if America agreed not to invade. On 27 October, Khrushchev sent another telegram saying he would remove the missiles only if US missiles in Turkey were not removed. Also on 27 October, an American U2 spy plane was shot down. Khrushchev ignored the second telegram and agreed to the first telegram. However, his brother, Robert Kennedy, did secretly agree to remove the Turkish missiles.
• Opposition in Czechoslovakia to Soviet control (the 'Prague Spring')


  At the end of WW2, the Soviet established a pro-Soviet government under Klement Gottwald. There was no freedom of speech and the government carried out purges between 1949 and 1954. Economic and political problems led to student demonstrations in 1966. In 1968, Alexander Dubcek became leader. He believed the government should offer 'socialism with a human face'. He started offering reforms like relaxed censorship, increased powers for trade unions, and increased trade with the West. This became known as the 'Prague Spring'. The Soviet leader, Brezhnev, became concerned and ordered Warsaw Pact troops to carry out manoeuvres in Czechoslovakia. When Dubcek invited Ceausescu of Romania and Tito of Yugoslavia to Prague, Brezhnev ordered an invasion. On 20 August 1968, 500,000 Warsaw Pact troops invaded Czechoslovakia and ended the 'Prague Spring'. Having learnt from Hungary's previous experience, Dubcek told the Czech people not to fight back. Dubcek was arrested and sent to Moscow.