approaches

• define psychology

  the scientific study of the mind, behaviour and experience
• define science

  • a means of acquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigation
  • the aim is to discover general laws
• define introspection


  the first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts images and sensations
• define the behaviourist approach

  a way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning
• define classical conditioning

  • learning by association
  • occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together - an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and a neutral stimulus (NS)
  • the neutral stimulus eventually produces the same response that was first produced by the unconditioned stimulus alone
• define operant conditioning

  • a form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences
  • possible consequences of behaviour include reinforcement (positive or negative) and punishment
• define reinforcement

  • a consequence of behaviour that increases the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated
  • can be positive or negative
• define social learning theory.

  a way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement, combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors
• define imitation simply

  copying the behaviour of others
• define identification

  when an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like the role model
• define modelling

  • from the observers perspective, modelling is imitating the behaviour of a role model
  • from the models perspective, modelling is the precise demonstration of a specific behaviour that may be imitated by an observer
• define vicarious reinforcement

  • reinforcement which is not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour
  • this is a key factor in imitation
• define meditational processes


  cognitive factors that influence learning and come in-between stimulus and response
• define cognitive approach

  the term 'cognitive' has come to mean 'mental processes'

  so this approach is focused on how our mental processes (thoughts, perceptions, attention) affect behaviour
• define internal mental processes

  'private' operations of the mind such as perception and attention that mediate between stimulus and response
• define schema

  • a mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing
  • they are developed from experiences
• define inference

  the process whereby cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate in the basis of observed behaviour
• define cognitive neuroscience


  the scientific study of those biological structures that underpin cognitive processes
• define the biological approach

  a perspective that emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body such as genetic inheritance and neural function
• define genes

  • they make up chromosomes and consist of DNA which codes the physical features of an organism (such as height and eye colour) and psychological features (such as mental disorder and intelligence)
  • genes are transmitted from parents to offspring, i.e. inherited
• define biological structure

  an arrangement or organisation of parts to form an organ, system or living thing
• define neurochemistry


  relating to chemicals in the brain that regulate psychological functioning
• define genotype


  the particular set of genes that a person posses
• define phenotype

  the characteristics of an individual determined by both genes and the environment
• define evolution


  the changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations
• define nervous system

  • consists of the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system
  • communicates using electrical signals
• define central nervous system

  • CNS
  • consists of the brain and the spinal cord
  • is the origin of all complex commands and decisions
• define peripheral nervous system

  • PNS
  • sends information to the CNS from the outside world, and transmits messages from the CNS to muscles and glands in the body
• define somatic nervous system

  • SNS
  • transmits information to the receptor cells in the sense organs to the CNS
  • it also receives information from the CNS that directs muscles to act
• define automatic nervous system

  • ANS
  • transmits information to and form internal bodily organs
  • it is 'automatic' as the system operates involuntarily
  • it has two main divisions, the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems
• define endocrine system

  • one of the body's major information systems that instructs glands to release hormones directly into the bloodstream
  • these hormones are carried towards target organs in the body
  • communicates via chemicals
• define glands

  an organ in the body that synthesises substances such as hormones
• define hormones

  • chemical substances that circulate in the bloodstream and only affect target organs
  • they are produced in large quantities but disappear quickly
  • their effects are very powerful
• define the fight or flight response

  • the way an animal responds when stressed
  • the body becomes physiologically aroused in readiness to fight an aggressor or some cases flee
• define adrenaline

  • a hormone produced by the adrenal glands which is part of the human body's immediate stress response system
  • adrenaline has a strong effect on the cells of the cardiovascular system - stimulating heart rate, contracting blood vessels and dilating air passages
• define neuron

  • the basic building blocks of the nervous system
  • neurons are nerve cells that process and transmit messages through electrical and chemical signals
• define sensory neurons

  • these carry messages from the PNS to the CNS
  • they have long dendrites and short axons
• define relay neurons

  • these connect the sensory neurons to the motor or other relay neurons
  • they have short dendrites and short axons
• define motor neurons

  • these connect the CNS to effectors such as muscles and glands
  • they have short dendrites and long axons
• define neurotransmitters

  • Brain chemicals released from synaptic vesicles that relay signals across the synapse from one neuron to another
  • neurotransmitters can be broadly divided into those that perform an excitatory function and those that perform an inhibitory function