BELIEFS IN SOCIETY

• beliefs - ideas about things we hold to be true; religious beliefs concern themselves mainly with beliefs in supernatural powers or forces of some kind, & deal with ideas about fundamental issues of human existence, such as if we have a soul & what happens when we die
• ideology - refers to a set of ideas, values & beliefs that provides a means of interpreting the world; often presents only a partial, incomplete or false view of reality, & expresses & justifies the interests of particular social groups
• pluralism - view that sees the exercise of power in society as reflecting a broad range of social interests, with power spread among a wide variety of competing interest groups & individuals, with no single one having a monopoly on power
• pluralist ideology

  • view that suggests there are many different types of social groups, each with their own ideologies, living alongside each other
  • none can claim to be the only right way of seeing the world, or has a privileged position of dominating or suppressing others, & there is no single dominant ideology that reflects the interests of a particular social group
  • however, it's therefore concealing & denying unequal distributions of power in society, as not all groups are able to influence others & get their views accepted
• marxism & ideology

  • believe the ideas people hold are formed by their position in society, & ideology can therefore be seen as the ideas of particular social groups reflecting their interests
  • the dominant ideology, which is a set of ideas & beliefs held by the most powerful groups in society & ruling class
  • mannheim - dominant ideology of the ruling class prevents social change
  • althusser - dominant ideology is spread through isa
  • gramsci - hegemony
• mannheim

  • the dominant ideology is associated with the deliberate obscuring of facts in order to conceal the inequalities of capitalist society
  • this helps preserve the existing patterns of inequality & the privileged position of the dominant class
  • it also prevents any social change that might threaten their interests
• althusser

  • suggests the dominant ideology was spread through a series of ideological state apparatuses
  • these are social institutions such as the family, education system, media, law and religion
  • they justify the power of the dominant social class & prevent revolution against capitalism
• gramsci

  • developed the concept of hegemony - the dominance of ruling class ideas
  • this refers to the process whereby the ruling class, through the dominant ideology, maintains its power by persuading other social classes, & particularly the working class, to adopt ruling-class ideology as part of their own beliefs & values
  • this leads to them consenting to the rule of the dominant class rather than being forced to obey
• feminism & ideology

  • patriarchal ideology - set of ideas that supports & tries to justify the power of men in society through beliefs like men being superior, more logical & less emotional
  • women seen as more suited to childcare & family tasks
  • some feminists regard many contemporary religions & religious organisations to be both patriarchal in structure & reflecting patriarchal ideology
• political ideologies

  • ideology that provides an interpretation of how society should work, & suggests how power should be used by governments to influence events & change society via policy-making & political action
  • may be broad (ie nationalism, liberalism, communism, anarchism, fascism) which involve particular ways of seeing the world ^ how society should be run
  • may be specific (ie those held by particular political parties) which suggest particular political policies they would favour implementing
• scientism

  • science used to be mixed up with religious beliefs (ie praying as medicine), but now seen as competing with religion, especially due to scientism which directly challenges & dismisses all religious explanations
  • scientism is a belief system / ideology that claims science & the scientific method alone can provide true knowledge & understanding of the world while rejecting alternatives
  • may be regarded as another form of ideology, protecting & justifying the interests of scientists
  • however, many scientists don't believe in scientism as it cannot explain all phenomena, ie racism & sexism
• defining science

  • differing views of science, but it (as opposed to scientism) is generally seen as different from religion & ideology as its claims to be true rest on scientific methods & producing explanations based on empirical evidence, objectivity & value freedom
  • popper proposes features of scientific method
  • use of scientific method means scientific explanations & theories are not unquestionably accepted as an act of faith, but are open to constant challenge, change, correction & improvement
  • however, science may be a social construction
• popper - suggests scientific method involves

  • hypothesis formation - formulating explanations for phenomena which can be tested against empirical evidence
  • falsification - testing hypotheses to try & prove it wrong, as one exception can prove it false; more it stands up to testing, more likely it is true
  • prediction - establishing cause & effect so future events can be predicted
  • theory formation - if hypothesis isn't proven false, it's more reliable & can be used as part of a scientific theory
  • scrutiny - theory scrutinised by other scientists & stands only until new evidence shows it is false
• social construction of scientific knowledge

  • popper's principle of falsification suggests researchers should aim to prove their hypotheses false
  • however, kuhn argues that scientists do not do this, & instead work within paradigms
  • social influences also impact the nature & direction of scientific research, meaning it may not be objective
  • suggests science may in some ways be a form of ideology, justifying the interests of the mainstream scientific community & is not always objective, value-free, etc
  • scientists instead protect favoured theories & fit findings into prevailing scientific ideology
• kuhn

  • scientists don't attempt to falsify theories, but try to fit them into paradigms - framework of scientific theories, methods & assumption which provide guidelines for the conduct of research & what counts as proper evidence
  • power of paradigm may mean scientists ignore or overlook evidence that doesn't fit into it, which is usually dismissed ie due to experimental error or freak conditions
  • rarely called into question until evidence against them is overwhelming, in 'scientific revolutions' to replace old paradigm with a new one
• social influences on nature & direction of scientific research

  • values & beliefs of researchers influence whether they think issues are worth studying
  • career aspirations lead to desire to prove hypotheses right, to be published & to research lucrative areas
  • search for funding may determine which research is carried out & how
  • objectivity may be limited by institution or funding constraints within which scientist is working
• definitions of religion

  • functional (inclusivist) definition
  • substantive (exclusivist) definition
  • interpretivists / constructivists (religion as a social construction)
• functional definition of religion

  • inclusivist, broad definition
  • covers wide range of beliefs to which people give religious or sacred qualities, but which does not necessarily include beliefs in the supernatural or god
  • seen in durkheim's approach - focuses on function of beliefs in society & way in which things people regard as sacred can, for example, contribute to social cohesion through shared values
• aldridge

  • argues functional definition of religion is too broad
  • too easy to qualify as religion, ie definition says nationalism (ie nazism) or commitment to a football team or celebrity is religious (combatted with idea of civil religion)
  • methodological issues where it is difficult to measure religion based on broadness of definition
  • religion should be defined as a 'cultural resource' that shapes & influences behaviour, ie many practice but do not believe in religion
• substantive definition of religion

  • exclusivist, narrower definition
  • focuses on what religion actually is & its content, & involves some kind of supernatural beliefs
  • fits with what most regard as religion & is the one adopted by most sociologists
  • some argue it is too unclear what counts as 'supernatural', ie belief in aliens, ghosts, magic, superstitions, god, etc
• giddens

  • suggests many definitions of religion don't focus exclusively on the relationship between the supernatural & humanity
  • many religions don't reference the supernatural or divine, ie buddhism, & many new religious movements stress the 'spiritual' or psychological rather than the divine; they suggest humanity should be looking within for fulfillment rather than outwards towards some supernatural being or force
  • therefore, the substantive definition may be too exclusive
• interpretivist / constructivist definition of religion

  • religion is what is defined as such
  • aldridge argues religion is a 'cultural resource' that shapes & influences behaviour
  • some (ie durkheim & marx) argue there is no such thing as supernatural & that religions were invented to explain the unexplainable & promote social solidarity or justify inequalities
  • others argue religions can only be defined as such & largely accepted if those promoting it have enough power to dominate society
  • beckford - religions are social constructions; they have been constructed by society & / or powerful groups
• types of religion

  • animism - belief that spiritual or supernatural forces organise & shape the physical world, ie angry spirits of rivers or volcanoes causing natural disasters & illness
  • theistic - belief in a sacred higher power which is viewed as source of morality & worthy of worship; monotheistic & polytheistic
  • asceticism - severe self-discipline & avoidance of all forms of indulgence, & hard-working
• religion & ideology

  • religion offers a means of explaining & interpreting the world
  • however, unlike ideology, they aren't always tied to the interests of particular social groups
  • ideologies are not necessarily based on faith in the supernatural, but on the interests of social groups
  • however, religion may become part of an ideology as a social group may seek to use religion for its own benefits, as discussed by marx
• 3 main aspects to religion

  • belief in the spiritual or supernatural - ie a person, entity, force or being
  • faith on part of the believers - strong sense of trust & conviction in the person or entity, which isn't based on observable, testable or falsifiable evidence
  • body of unchanging truth - religions usually contain certain fundamental & unchangeable beliefs, & new discoveries are fitted into these existing frameworks
• science & religion

  • in pre-industrial society, science & religion were largely intertwined, ie science was dominated by religious thinkers
  • conflicts of interest, ie darwin & theory of evolution
  • however, success of science in raising standards of living led to a widespread public faith in science
  • this faith in science only recently decreased due to the revelation that science also creates problems, such as pollution
• dixon identifies the following differences between science & religion

  • debating belief system - science is open belief system (open to scrutiny & questioning, & changes with new knowledge), religion is closed belief system (cannot be disproved & conflicting evidence is dismissed or made to fit into beliefs)
  • topic of study - science on natural world, religion on spiritual world
  • method of study - science uses systematic observation & experimentation, religion based on faith & 'revelations'
  • objectivity vs subjectivity - science objective & based on evidence, religion subjective & based on faith
• science & displacement of religious explanations in modernity

  • bruce argues it is the scientific method, rather than scientific discoveries, that has provided the greatest challenge to religion as a belief system
  • challenge to religion from science grew as society moved towards modernity, with growing concern in evidence-based knowledge of cause & effect of natural phenomena rather than search for the meaning of such phenomena
  • modernity was also a time period in which rational & scientific thinking became more common
• comte - transition to modernity via 3 stages changed human understanding from religious to scientific

  1. theological stage - phenomena explained as arising from actions of supernatural
  2. metaphysical stage - supernatural element is diminished, & phenomena is explained as arising from the action of more natural, though abstract, forces (ie power of nature)
  3. positive or scientific stage - previous explanations are displaced by rational explanations based on evidence derived from observation & experimentation, rational thinking; weber argued modern society involved a growing 'disenchantment'
• has science displaced religion

  • many still identify themselves as religious
  • all manner of religious & supernatural beliefs continue to have extraordinary power over human behaviour
  • shown in movements such as islamic fundamentalism, new religious movements, etc
  • therefore, religious & other supernatural beliefs of some kind remain a significant feature of life in many contemporary societies
• postmodernism & ideology, science & religion

  • all metanarratives, claiming to explain the world & often also claiming a monopoly of truth; there have now been a loss of faith in metanarratives
  • science can no longer claim to be superior & to enable humans to control & improve the world since it repeatedly fails or creates problems, ie global warming & pollution, & failed to provide treatments for diseases like cancer
  • postmodern society is characterised by growing choice & diversity, & people now establish identities through consumption, including what beliefs they buy into
• postmodernism & religion

  • believes that secularisation is occurring due to the decline of metanarratives & fragmentation of belief
  • growth of diy spirituality, & religion as a consumer product in a global spiritual supermarket in a media-saturated society
  • 'vacuum of meaning' in postmodern society due to the decline in religious beliefs
  • disneyisation of religion
• religion as a conservative vs radical force

  • conservative force
  • building & maintaining social solidarity
  • protecting traditional values & the existing state of affairs or
  • changing society to restore traditional values & ways of life that may be at risk of disappearing or have already disappeared
  • radical force - changing society or moving it forward
• religious fundamentalism

  • returning to the fundamentals of a religion
  • usually based on literal interpretation of sacred texts
  • certainty of rightness of their beliefs, & hostility & intolerance to other religions & beliefs
  • emerges as response to secularisation & modernisation, wishing to reverse social & religious changes to return to religion dominating society
  • sometimes involve use of violence to support their aims, ie new christian right bombing abortion clinics
  • strong desire to impose their beliefs ie via policy promoting living in conformity to religious requirements
• functionalist perspective of religion

  • religion as a conservative force
  • durkheim - value consensus & social solidarity through the worship of society
  • malinowski - psychological functions by explaining phenomenon & providing emotional security in the face of uncertainty
  • parsons - religion creates & legitimates society's central values, & provides a source of meaning
  • bellah - civil religions
• functionalism - religion as a conservative force

  • promotes social harmony, social integration & social solidarity through reinforcement of value consensus
  • meets functional prerequisites - basic needs that society has in order to survive
  • part of culture in a society & helps build collective identity & maintain cultural traditions (bruce - cultural transition & defence)
  • also restricts deviance by sacralising social & moral order
• bruce

  • cultural defence - religion acts as a focal point for the defence of community identity, which is seen as under threat in some way from an external force, for example westernisation
  • cultural transition - where groups move to a different country or culture, & religion provides a source of identity & support during the period of transition & adaptation to the new culture
• durkheim

  • religion provides set of beliefs & practices that unite people & create value consensus & social solidarity
  • sacred vs profane - religion relates to sacred aspects of society
  • sacred doesn't have to be supernatural; can be anything people regard as sacred
  • totemism - worship of society
  • religion creates a collective conscience & maintains social order, providing guidelines on how individuals should conduct themselves
• durkheim - sacred vs profane

  • sacred - refers to things that are regarded as special & 'set apart & forbidden', that are spiritual, religious or holy & that are in same ways extraordinary
  • profane - refers to the ordinary, mundane, everyday, non-spiritual, non-religious or unholy aspects of life
• durkheim - totemism

  • studied practice of totemism in aboriginal tribes, arguing it represented religion in its most basic form
  • totemism is the practice of worshipping a sacred object (totem), which is usually named after the tribe or group
  • argued the totem is created by society & is so sacred because it is a symbol of the group or society
  • when worshipping the totem, people are therefore actually worshipping society