Chapter 01 - Anatomy and Physiology

• Anatomy


  Scientific discipline that investigates the body's structure, such as the size and shape of a bone
• Gross Anatomy


  • Structures examined without a microscope
  • Regional: studied area by area
  • Systemic: studied system by system
  • Surface: external form used to visualize deeper structures
• Cytology


  Cellular anatomy
• Histology


  Study of tissues
• Physiology


  Scientific investigation of the processes or functions of living things
• Types of Physiology


  • Cell Physiology: examines processes in cells
  • Systemic Physiology: functions of organ systems
  • Neurophysiology: focuses on the nervous system
  • Cardiovascular Physiology: the heart and blood vessels
• Combination of Anatomy and Physiology

  • Pathology: structural and functional changes caused by disease
  • Exercise Physiology: changes in structure and function caused by exercise
• Anatomical Imaging Techniques


  • X-ray
  • Ultrasound
  • Computed Tomography (CT)
  • Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA)
  • Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
  • Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
• Levels of Biological Organization

  • Chemical
  • Cell: structural and functional unit of living organisms
  • Tissue: group of similar cells and the materials surrounding them
  • Organ: two or more tissues functioning together
  • Organ System: group of organs functioning together
  • Organism: any living thing, whether composed of one cell or many
• Organization


  Condition in which there are specific interrelationships and functions among the parts of an organism
• Metabolism


  The ability to use energy to perform vital functions; all chemical reactions of the body
• Responsiveness


  Ability to sense changes in the interior and exterior environment and adjust; cell-to-cell communication is necessary
• Aspects of Growth and Development

  • Growth: increase in size and/or number of cells
  • Development: changes in an organism over time
  • Differentiation: change from general to specific
  • Morphogenesis: change in shape of tissues, organs, or the entire organism
• Reproduction


  Formation of new cells or new organisms for growth and development; allows organisms to pass on their genes to their offspring
• Studying other organisms has increased our knowledge about humans
• Studying single-celled bacteria provides much information about human cells
• Mammalian research furthers human surgery and medicine
• Claudius Galen (ca. 130–201) observed a large number of anatomical structures supposedly present in humans but only observed in other animals
• Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564) was the first modern anatomist
• Some current knowledge in molecular biology and physiology has not been confirmed in humans
• Homeostasis


  Maintenance of relatively constant internal environment within the body
• Set point


  Ideal normal value
• Feedback loop


  Homeostasis is regulated by feedback loops that allow for a process to be adjusted by the outcome
• Components of a feedback loop

  • Receptor: monitors the value of some variable by detecting a stimulus
  • Control center: establishes the set point and receives input from the receptor
  • Effector: generates the response which can change the value of the variable
• Negative feedback


  When the response diminishes the original stimulus
• Negative feedback


  • Blood glucose concentrations rise after a sugary meal
  • Exercise creates metabolic heat which raises the body temperature
• Positive feedback


  When the response enhances the original stimulus
• Positive feedback


  • Blood clotting
  • In childbirth
  • A baby begins to suckle her mother's nipple and a few drops of milk are released
• Harmful positive feedback: after hemorrhage, blood pressure drops and the heart's ability to pump blood decreases
• Anatomical position


  Body erect, face forward, feet together, palms face forward
• Body positions


  • Supine: lying face upward
  • Prone: lying face downward
• Directional terms


  • Superior: up
  • Inferior: down
  • Cephalic: towards the head
  • Caudal: towards the tail
  • Anterior: goes before
  • Posterior: which follows
  • Ventral: surface/belly
  • Dorsal: back
  • Proximal: nearest
  • Distal: distant
  • Medial: towards the midline
  • Lateral: away from the midline
  • Superficial: structure close to the surface of the body
  • Deep: towards the interior of the body
• Central regions


  • Head
  • Neck
  • Trunk
• Regions of the trunk

  • Thorax: the chest cavity where the heart and lungs are located
  • Abdomen: contains organs such as the liver, stomach, and intestines
• Subdivisions of the abdomen

  • Right upper
  • Left upper
  • Right lower
  • Left lower
• Abdominal regions


  • Right hypochondriac region
  • Epigastric region
  • Left hypochondriac region
  • Right lumbar region
  • Umbilical region
  • Left lumbar region
  • Right iliac region
  • Hypogastric region
  • Left iliac region
• Pelvis: contains the bladder and reproductive organs
• ANTERIOR


  Goes before
• POSTERIOR


  Which follows
• MEDIAL


  Towards the midline