Offender Profiling

• What do we mean by "Top Down" when referring to offender profiling?

  The top down approach was developed in the 1970s by the FBI. In this type of offender profiling, profilers start with pre-established typology and work down in order to assign offenders to categories based on evidence from the crime scene
• How did the FBI develop the Top Down approach?

  The Top-Down approach was developed by conducting in depth interviews of 36 sexually motivated serial killers and using the data collected from these interviews to develop a categorisation system
• What are the two main ways offenders are classified?

  There are two main classifications for top down: disorganised and organised
• Outline the characteristics of an organised offender

  Often have a planned and controlled approach, with any weapons brought and removed from the scene. Any evidence is destroyed or removed and there are attempts in controlling the victim. They may also be specifically chosen. Offender is often unknown to the offender, has an above average intelligence and is socially and sexually competent. May also be angry or depressed and is likely to be living with a partner
• Outline the characteristics of a disorganised offender

  Often have an unplanned and chaotic approach with weapons improvised and left at the scene. Evidence is left at the scene and there is no attempt to destroy or hide this. There is little control over the victim and they are randomly chosen. The offender is commonly known to the victim, is socially and sexually inept, below average intelligence. May also be anxious or psychotic and is likely to be living alone
• What are the four main steps in the process of constructing an FBI profile?


  1) Data assimilation (evidence is looked at)

  2) Crime scene classification (organised or disorganised)

  3) Crime reconstruction (sequence of events, behaviour of offender and victim etc)

  4) Profile generation (related to the likely offender such as demographic background, physical characteristics and behaviour)
• What does Pinizzotto and Finkel's (1990) study suggest about the effectiveness of Top Down profiling?

  Compared 5 groups on their ability to write profiles of a solved murder case. Groups were expert profilers, detectives with profiling experience, detective without, undergrads and clinical psychologists. Detectives without experience were more accurate in predicting characteristics of the murderer.

  Suggests TDA is not effective when it comes to criminal profiling especially when compared to other methods used by detectives
• What was a problem with the sample used in the development in the approach?

  The approach was developed from interviews with 36 American Killers. The data is likely to be invalid as we have to rely on the interviewees being truthful. However, they may have lied/over exaggerated about aspects of their crimes for fame or failed to mentioned behaviours they didn't want to talk about.
• How is the Top Down approach limited?

  TDA can only be applied to certain crimes such as serial murder and rape, especially if they involve practices such as sadistic torture, acting out fantasies etc. These offences are rare and more common offences eg burglary do not lend themselves to top down because the crime scene reveals very little about the offender
• Why is the approach too outdated and too simplistic?

  Based on outdated models of personality as the top down classification system assumes that offenders have behaviours and motivations that remain consistent across situations however critics argue that personality is dynamic

  Too simplistic - Many offenders personalities are not mutually exclusive and crime scenes may be a combination of both organised and disorganised characteristics, therefore this approach cannot be accurate in correctly profiling
• What four types of serial killer did Holmes (1989) propose?

  Visionary, Mission, Hedonistic and Power/Control, as opposed to just "Organised" or "Disorganised". Limitation as it questions the validity of the top down and the use of both categories for classification
• What do we mean by "Bottom Up" when referring to offender profiling?

  The profilers work from evidence collected at the crime scene to develop hypotheses about the likely characteristics, motivations and social background of the offender. Developed in the 1980s by David Canter. No fixed classifications in mind like the Top-Down approach
• What is investigative psychology and what key variables are involved?

  Investigative psychology is where details of the crime scene are matched with typical offender behaviour patterns and specific details are matched against a statistical database to reveal details about the offender, personal history, family etc. Can also determine whether a series of offences are likely to have been committed by the same person

  Key Variables:

  Interpersonal Coherence (How O interacts with V may reflect everyday behaviours), Significance of time and place, (May reveal location, O commits in places they feel comfortable) Forensic awareness (If O is covering tracks, suggesting already in the system)
• What is geographical profiling?

  Based on spatial consistency. An offenders operational base and possible future offences are revealed by geographical location of previous crimes. Theory is serial offenders restrict their crimes to areas they are geographically familiar with.

  Circle theory - If a circle is drawn that encompasses all of a series of linked crimes, majority of the time the offender is based somewhere in the circle

  Marauder - Operates in close proximity to their home base

  Commuter - Travels a distance from their usual base
• What evidence is there to support the effectiveness of the Bottom up approach?

  Lundrigan and Carter (2001) collected information from 120 murder cases involving serial killers from USA, and the data was examined using a computer programme called smallest space analysis. It was revealed there was spatial consistency in behaviour of the killings, with all disposal sites being around where the offender lived. This supports the circle theory, that offenders who are Marauders commonly live in the centre of the locations of their crimes
• What advantage does it have over the Top Down approach?

  BUA is able to be applied to a wider range of offences such as serial burglaries and thefts as well as more serious offences such as murder and rape. As well as this, BUA is more objective, it is based on factual information so is more grounded on evidence and data rather than speculation and theory.

  Therefore the BUA is a more desirable and scientific type of offender profiling
• What evidence is there that the Bottom Up approach is not very effective?

  Led to wrongful convictions - Colin Stagg was prosecuted for the murder of Rachel Nickell wrongfully as he matched the profile that the police had collected. However, the real killer, Robert Napper wasn't investigated as he was too tall for the profile that the police obtained.

  Shows that the Bottom Up approach should not be relied on as a main source of technique as it can lead to miscarriages of justice. It should be used alongside other techniques to be most effective.