demography

• Birth rate


  Number of live births per thousand of the population per year

  long term in decline in birth rates since 1900
• Total fertility rate 


  TFR is average number of children women have during their fertile years. Has risen in the UK but a lot lower than the past 1.63 kids in 2001 per women, rose to 1.83 by 2014. But much lower than the peak of 2.95 children per women in 1964 during 1960s baby boom.
• Changes in women position declining birth rate

  Easier access to divorce, legal equality w men, education, paid employment etc S.Harper 2012 Said that education of women is the most important reason for long term fall in birth and fertility rates As it’s changed the mindset of women
• Decline in infant mortality rate

  IMR measures the no of infants who die before their first birthday per thousand babies born alive per year. Harper - fall in IMR leads to decline in birth rate as parents have fewer children if they’re more likely to survive. stats: 1900 IMR was 154 but during 20th century IMR fall due to improvement in healthcare, knowledge etc. 2012 IMR WAS 4!!
• Children an economic liability

  Late 19th century - children seen as economic assets to parents, but since 19th century they’ve been a liability due to

  laws banning child Labour, compulsory schooling

  changing norms - cost of bringing up children has risen.
• child centredness 


  Increasing child centredness Of family and society means childhood is now socially constructed as a important period, in terms of family the shift has moved from quantity to quality.
• Future trends in birth rates

  slight increase in births due to immigration as mothers outside of uk have a higher fertility rate, eg babies born to mothers outside of uk accounted of 25% of all births in 2011

  projection for the period up to 2041 expects annual no of births to be constant at around 800k per year
• family effect on fertility

  Smaller families means that women more likely to be free to go out to work, hence creating duel earned couple typical of professional families. But family size only one factor as better off couples may be able to have larger families and still afford childcare that allows them to both work full time
• Public services and policies effecting fertility

  Lower birth rathe affects public services eg fewer skwls n stuff needed

  aging population: is due to women having fewer babies: more old people relative to young people
• Death rate 


  Number of deaths per thousand of population per year.

  1990 death rate stood at 19, but 2012 it halved to 8.9
• Reasons for decline in death rate

  Tranter 1996 - over 3/4 of decline from 1850-1970 was due to a fall in number of deaths from infectious disrases such as TB, measles etc. by 1950s diseases of affluence eg heart disease and cancer had replaced infectious diseases.
• Improved nutrition decline in DR 


  McKeown 1972 - improved nutrition halfed the death rates n reduced it as it means better resistance to diseases etc

  but doesn’t explain why females who eat less lived longer than males
• medical improvements decline in DR

  after 1950s improved medical knowledge, techniques and organisations help to reduce death rates. EG NHS 1948.
• Smoking and death rate decline in DR

  Harper - greatest fall in DR but bc ppl reducing smoking. but obesity has replaced smoking as lifestyle epidemic eg in 2012 1/4th of adults were obese.
• Public health measures reducing DR

  20th century - more effective central and local govt w necessary power to pass and enforce laws led to a range of improvements in public health and quality of environment.

  Clean Air Acts reduced air pollution etc
• Life expectancy 


  how long on average a person born in a given year can expect to live. life expectancy has increased

  in 1900, males expected to live until 50 and 57 for females

  but in 2013, males expect to live until 90 yrs, 94 for females.
• class gender and regional diff of life expectancy 


  women generally live longer but gap has narrowed due to employment and lifestyle eg women smoking

  Those in north have a lower life expectancy WC men in unskilled or routine jobs are 3x as likely to die before they are 65 compared to men in professional jobs.
• aging population


  avg age of uk population is rising. in 1971 it was 34.1 years, by 2013 it stood at 40.3. by 2037 its projected to reach 42.8.

  aging population caused by

  increasing life expectancy

  declining infant mortality

  declining fertility
• effects of aging population on public services

  older ppl consume more services such as health n social care more true for old old ppl so over 75 rather than 65-74 y/o. as well as inc expenditure on healthcare, aging population can mean changes to policies and provision of housing, transport or other services.
• one pension pensioner households EOAP


  no of pnsioners living alone has inc, n accounts for ab 1 in 8 households most are females as they generally live longer.
• dependency ratio EOAP


  unemployed old are an economically dependent group who need to be provided for those of working age.

  no of retired ppl inc, burden increases for wpop, eg 3.2 ppl of working age for every one pensioner in 2015. ratio predicted to fall to 2.8:1 by 2033. but not every old person is ED. and theres a decline in no of dependent children.
• modern society and old age

  ageism is result of structured dependency - old largely excluded from paid work, in modern society our identity is shaped by our role in production.

  Marxist Philipson 1982 - old are of no use to capitalism bc they are no longer productive. therefore state is unwilling to support them n female relatives have to take responsibility.
• post modern society and old age

  Hunt 2005 argues that we can choose a lifestyle and identity regardless of our age, age no longer determines who we are or how we live. eg old become a market for rejuvenation goods and services eg cosmetic surgery, exercise equipment, anti aging products.
• inequality amongst old


  Pilcher 1995 argues that inequalities such as class and gender remain important

  Class - MC have better pensions n salaries, poorer ones have shorter life spans

  Gender- women's lower earnings means lower pensions, subject to sexist stereotypings such as old hags.
• policy implications of agism

  Hirsch 2005 - social policies will need to change to tackle new problems posed by an ageing population. housing policy reform to encourage them to trade into smaller accomodation.
• migration


  migration - movement of ppl from place to place

  immigration - movement into a society

  emigration - moving out

  net migration - diff between no of immigrants and no of emigrants
• immigration in UK


  1900 till WW2, irish largest immigrant grp

  1950s- blk immigrants from carribean began to arrive in UK followed by asians in 1960s and 1970s by south asian immigrants.
• Emigration


  Uk almost always net exporter of people

  since 1900, emigrants have gone to USA, canada, australia, New Zealand, and south africa.

  push factors - economic recession and unemployment

  pull factors - higher wages or better jobs abroad
• impact of migration on UK population structure

  population size is growing - net migration is high 260k in 2014, 47% from non eu countries

  age structure - immigration lowers average age directly - immigrants mostly younger eg avg age of non uk pp holders was 31, indirectly - more fertile so produce more babies
• dependency ratio immigration 3 effects

  immigrants more likely to be of working age which lowers the dependency ratio

  younger hence they have more children, n these children will join labour force

  longer a grp is settled in the country, closer their fertility rate comes to national average, reducing their overall impact on dependency ratio.
• globalisation - acceleration


  globalisation has sped up the rate of migration. UN 2013 - between 2000 and 2013, international migration increased by 33% to reach 232 million or 3.2% of worlds population.
• globalisation differentiation


  diff types of migrants

  Vertovec 2007 - calls it super diversity, migrants come from a range of cultures, religions etc.

  Cohen 2006 three types of migrants

  citizens w full citizenship rights

  denizens - privileged foreign nationals welcomed by state eg billionaires

  helots (slaves) - most exploited grps, a reserve army of labour. found in unskilled low paid work, illegally trafficked workers, domestic servants
• feminisation of migration


  almost half of global migrants are female, female migrants fitted into patriarchal stereotypes of womens roles as carers or sexual services.

  Hoschild 2003 - care work, domestic, sex work done by women from poor countries bc

  expansion of service occupations in western countries led to an inc in demand for female labour

  western women less willing to domestic labour as well as men

  failure of state to provide adequate childcare.

  Shutes 2011 - 40% of adult care nurses r migrants.
• migrant identities


  John Eade 1994 - migrants may develop hybrid identities, made up of 2 or more diff sources. eg bangladeshi muslims in britain had hierarchal identites : saw themselves as muslim first, bengali, british.
• transational identities


  Eriksen 2007 - globalisation has created more diverse migration patterns, hence migrants less likely to see themselves as belonging to one country or culture. develop transnational identities modern tech makes it possible to sustain global ties eg chinese migrants in rome found mandarin more useful than italian bc mandarin was more important for their global connections
• politicisation of migration


  assimiliation - first state policy approach , encourages them to adopt norms n values to be like us but transnational migrants may not be willing to adapt

  multiculturalism - accepts that migrants may wish to retain a seperate cultural identity shallow diversity - chicken tikka national dish acceptable for state deep diversity - arranged marriages or veils not acceptable
• what do critics of multicultural education policies say?

  celebrate shallow diversity, samosas saris and steel bands whilst failing to address deeper problems such as racism. after 9/11 terror attack politicans have demanded assimilation occurs eg france banned veiling.
• castles 2000


  said that assimilation policies are counter productive as it marks out migrants as other people leads to minorities responding by emphasising their difference eg islamic fundamentalism.