Research Methods

• What is the difference between aim and hypothesis?

  • aim - a general statement about what the investigator intends to research
  • hypothesis - a precise, testable statement including levels of IV and DV
• What are the types of hypothesis?

  1. Null hypothesis - there is no change/difference in the measurement of the DV as a result of the IV
  2. Alternative hypothesis - there is a difference in the DV as a result of the IV
• What are the types of alternative hypothesis?

  1 - Non directional hypothesis (one tailed) - there is a difference in the DV but not the direction the result will go

  2 - Directional hypothesis (two tailed) - there is a difference in the DV and says which direction the results will go - should only use if their is previous research
• What is an independent experimental design?

  • different pps complete in each of the conditions
  • produces UNRELATED DATA - data from one condition cannot be paired with any data from another
• Evaluation of independent measures design -

  • Advantages - pps are less likely to work out the aim which reduces demand characteristics
  • less order effects
  • Disadvantages - need double the pps for same amount of data
  • there are participant variables between conditions
• What is repeated measures design?

  • the same pps complete in each of the two experiments designs
  • produces RELATED DATA - each pps score in one condition can be paired with data in another condition
• Evaluation of matched pairs design -

  • advantages - reduces pp variables, reduces order effects
  • disadvantages - takes longer to set up and needs twice as many pps
  • pps are similar but NOT identical so may still be pp variables
• What is a lab experiment?

  • defined by the high level of control the researcher has over all variables in the study. Manipulates the IV and research the effect of the DV
• Evaluation of lab experiment -

  • advantages - researchers can be confident in establishing cause and effect since there is control between the IV and DV
  • high internal validity - change in DV is due to IV
  • lab studies are easily replicated due to the use of standardised procedures (everything kept the same for all pps)
  • disadvantages - lacks ecological validity, artificial tasks (lacks mundane realism), may alter behaviour due to demand characteristics
• What is a field experiment?

  • takes place in a natural setting where researcher can manipulate the IV
• Evaluation of field experiment -

  • advantages - higher ecological validity - more natural behaviour
  • tasks are more likely to have mundane realism
  • will not show demand characteristics
  • disadvantages - lack control over any potential extraneous variables
  • low internal validity - difficult to randomly assign and pp variables
• What is a natural experiment?

  • two levels of IV have occured naturally without the influence of the researcher
• Advantages of natural experiment -

  • allow researchers in areas that could not happen in controlled experimentation due to ethical cost reasons
  • high external validity (real behaviour)
  • DISADVANTAGES - extraneous variables cannot be controlled - no cause or effect relationship
  • cannot be replicated (rare events)
• What is a quasi experiment?

  • pps cannot be randomly assigned because IV is an innate characteristic
• Evaluation of quasi experiments -

  • advantages - only way to study factors that are pre existing characteristics of pps
  • disadvantages - may be other factors related to the levels of IV that cannot be controlled as they change systematically between levels of IV and DV (confounding)
• Volunteer sampling -

  • pps offer to take part
  • ADVANTAGES - advertising can reach a large no of people, easy sample collected (time)
  • DISADVANTAGES - may not be generalisable to target population - volunteer bias
• Random Sampling -

  • each member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected
  • ADVANTAGES - avoids researcher bias
  • Disadvantages - may produce an unrepresentative sample, can be difficult and time consuming
• Systematic Sample -

  • pps are chosen from a list of the target population
  • every nth participant
  • advantages - avoids researcher bias, quick method for student registers/school, college
  • disadvantages - could produce an unrepresentative sample, getting a large target sample can be difficult
• Opportunity Sample -

  • researcher directly asks members of population - typically have easy access to and are familiar with
  • advantages - quick and easy
  • disadvantages - researcher bias (preffered result), likely to be unrepresentative
• Stratified Sample -

  • a sample that is unrepresentative of target population
  • advantages - representative of population and avoids researcher bias
  • disadvantages - time consuming and not every possible characteristic can be included
• What are the ethical issues?

  1. informed consent
  2. deception
  3. right to withdraw
  4. protection from harm
  5. confidentiality
  6. debriefing
• How do you deal with ethics?

  1. Cost benefit analysis - the role is to make judgements about the costs and benefits of an individual
  2. consent - consent letters form
  3. deception/harm - given a debrief and right to withdraw
  4. confidentiality - maintain anonymity
• What is a pilot study?

  • a small scale trial run of the investigation to check that procedures, measures and materials work
• What is an observation?

  • a non experimental technique where the researcher watches and records behaviour of pps without manipulating the IV
• Controlled Observation -

  • aspects of environment are controlled
  • ADVANTAGES - reduces extraneous variables and results are likely to be reliable with standardised procedures
  • Disadvantages - artificial - produces unnatural behaviour
• Naturalistic Observation -

  • takes place in real world settings
  • advantages - high realism - natural behaviour, high external validity (can be generalised to other situations)
  • disadvantages - low internal validity due to lack of control of extraneous variables
• Overt Observation -

  • pps can see the researcher and are aware they are being studied
  • ethical issues - deception
  • demand characteristics - pps will change behaviour
• Covert Observation -

  • pps are not aware they are being observed
  • free from demand characteristics and SDB
  • unethical
• Participant Observation -

  • researcher joins group being observed
  • can build rapports, more trusting, natural behaviour
  • can lose objectivity - researchers perspective
• Non Participant Observation -

  • researcher is seperate from pps
  • likely to remain objective
  • lack of trust - unnatural behaviour
• What is an observation design?

  • choice of behaviours to record and how they are measured
  • behavioural catergories - behaviours need to be clearly identifiable and measurable
• What is time sampling?

  • researcher records relevant behaviour at set points
  • more flexible - able to record unexpected behaviour
  • can miss behaviour that happens outside recording periods
• What is event sampling?

  • researcher records every time a behaviour occurs from a list of behaviour catergories
  • may miss relative behaviour/unexpected behaviour
• What are the types of self-report methods?

  1. Questionnaires
  2. Interviews
• What is a questionnaire?

  • pps give info in response to a set of questions
  • Advantages - do not require a trained interviewer and can be distributed easily
  • since there are closed questions, the data can be compared easily
  • Disadvantages - pps may not understand questions and cannot ask
  • acquiese bias - may respond to yes to every question
• What is an interview?

  • pps give info in response to direct questions from the researcher
  • Advantages - can build rapports and can rephrase questions
  • Disadvantages - requires a trained interviewer and there are interview bias/effects
• What are open questions?

  • questions that allow participants to elaborate
  • Advantages - pps have freedom to choose answers so more valid responses
  • Disadvantages - qualitative data makes data harder to analyse
• What are closed questions?

  • limits pps to phrases
  • Advantages - quantitative data is easier to analyse
  • Disadvantages - limits pps as they may not agree with any
• What is a structured interview?

  • interviewer reads out a list of prepared questions
  • Advantages - interviewer does not have to be highly trained
  • Disadvantages - responses cannot be followed up
• What is an unstructured interview?

  • not a set list of questions, more an open conversation
  • Advantages - rapport is more likely to happen as it is more comfortable
  • Disadvantages - hard to compare data