Issues and Debates

• Bias

  • Bias refers to any factor (e.g. attitudes, behaviours, beliefs) that interferes with the validity of the research process
  • Bias may produce attitudes and behaviours which favour universality
  • Adopting a universal approach can result in research that is subjective and laden with value-judgments
• gender bias 


  occurs when one gender is either favoured over another gender or one gender is discriminated against
• alpha bias

  occurs when researchers over-emphasize differences between males and females
• beta bias

  occurs when researchers ignore or downplay differences between males and females
• studies showing gender bias

  • Social Influence: research by Milgram (1963), Asch (1951, 1955) and Zimbardo (1973) used all-male samples to draw conclusions about the nature of, respectively, destructive obedience, normative conformity and conformity to social roles
  • By not using a gender-balanced sample each study could be accused of gender bias, specifically beta bias
  • Kohlberg’s (1973) theory has been criticised by Gilligan (1981) for taking a male-focused approach to moral development
• consequences of gender bias

  • Prejudice, discrimination and sexism are viewed as normal and acceptable
  • Female researchers may receive less funding as their role as serious psychologists may be questioned
  • The male viewpoint/behaviour becomes the ‘norm’ or the model for behaviour generally which could lead to female behaviour being viewed as ‘abnormal’
• culture bias

  • Culture bias occurs when one culture prevails over others so that the beliefs, attitudes, values and behaviours of that culture are viewed as the norm
  • Ethnocentrism is an example of culture bias
  • When ethnocentrism goes unchecked it can produce an imposed etic
  • Cultural relativism is the idea that cultures can only be understood from within that culture
• etic research

  research based on one culture is generalised and applied to all cultures.

  • assumes that the results and conclusions drawn from one culture can be universally applied.
• emic research

  research is based on studying a specific culture.

  • The results and conclusions drawn from these studies are not to be applied to all cultures.
  • The reason for this is that the focus is to study the behaviour within the group and between groups of people within the culture.
• studies showing culture bias


  • Paper 1 content – Attachment: research by Ainsworth (1970) assumed that attachment could be measured and categorised using the norms and values of her own culture (individualistic, American)
  • By ignoring the influence of culture on attachment style Ainsworth (1970) takes an etic approach 
• consequences of culture bias

  • Prejudice, discrimination and racism are viewed as normal and acceptable
  • Researchers who are from collectivist, non-Westernised cultures may receive less funding as their role as serious psychologists may be questioned
  •  The individualistic, Westernised viewpoint/behaviour becomes the ‘norm’ or the model for behaviour generally which could lead to non-Westernised, collectivist behaviour being viewed as ‘abnormal’
• how can gender and culture bias be avoided

  • Use a representative sample in their research: stratified sampling would achieve this aim as it reflects the gender and culture demographic within the target population
  • Conduct research within the context of the group itself so that there is meaningful participation from women/cultural groups
  • Ensure that female and ethnic minority researchers are given funding equal to the dominant group and that published research is given equal status to the dominant group
• determinism vs free will

  • The difference between being actively in charge of your own behaviour and outcomes (free will) or giving in to ‘fate’ and other external forces to decide your destiny (determinism)
  • A deterministic approach involves surrendering any autonomy for your own actions or for the actions of others
  • A free will approach involves assuming autonomy for your own actions even in the face of strong external influences
• hard determinism

  this type of determinism is based on the cause-effect explanation as it assumes that all types of behaviour can be explained using general, causal laws of behaviour
• soft determinism

  this type of determinism is based on hard determinism but it includes the mediating effects of cognitive factors such as thoughts, emotions, reflection which means that human beings can exercise some control over outcomes
• biological determinism

  this type of determinism assumes that biological processes control behaviour e.g. neurotransmission, hormones, genes
• environmental determinism

  this type of determinism is based on the ideas behind conditioning i.e. that human beings are controlled by external forces such as agents of socialisation e.g. parents, teachers
• psychic determinism

  this type of determinism is based on the idea that human beings are controlled by internal, unconscious drives which are derived from repressed conflicts
• behaviourist approach and determinism

  • The behaviourist approach underpins both hard determinism and environmental determinism with its emphasis on a simple cause-effect explanation of behaviour based on environmental stimuli and learned responses
  • Early proponents of behaviourism such as Skinner demonstrate the attitudes prevalent in hard determinism
  • Token economies are good examples of environmental determinism as they emphasise the role of external rewards as the motivation to change behaviour (also seen in the Learning approach)
• cognitive approach and determinism

  • The cognitive approach is an example of soft determinism as it follows the assumptions made by hard determinism but makes allowances for individual choice and thought
  • The concept of schema is an example of soft determinism in that an individual’s schema is dictated to some extent by external factors but the individual still exercises some control over how their schema develops e.g. someone who has been brought up to be racist may adapt their schema when they interact with other races and cultures
• biological approach and determinism

  • the biological approach is underpinned by biological determinism to some extent as it assumes that biological processes determine behaviour and outcomes
  • The theory of localisation of function is an example of biological determinism as it links specific behaviours to brain regions and structures e.g. Raine et al.’s  (1997) research which suggested that murderers lack activity in the prefrontal cortex
• psychodynamic approach and determinism

  • The psychodynamic approach is underpinned by psychic determinism with its emphasis on the idea that people unconsciously repress their true desires due to conflicts developed in early childhood
  • Freud’s study of Little Hans concluded that the boy had a horse phobia linked to his oedipus complex based on Freud’s theory of psychosexual stages of development
• approaches and determinism

  
• arguments to support determinism

  • The principles of determinism are in line with the features of science i.e. that behaviour has a cause and can be measured
  • Some behaviours may be determined by external factors e.g. mental illness as a result of being exposed to war, abuse, neglect
• arguments against determinism

  • If determinism is a 100% valid theory it would mean that everyone born under the same circumstances ends up with the same experiences or outcomes which is clearly untrue e.g. people born into a criminal family who choose a different path in life
  • For all its seeming scientific credentials determinism is unfalsifiable as it cannot pinpoint exactly what the causes of behaviour are e.g. a rich man steals a bottle of wine from a shop
• free will

  • only one ‘type’ of free will as this concept does not exist as a theory, more it is the idea that human beings are self-determining beings who are able to exercise control over their behaviour and that choice is a key part of this
• humanistic approach and free will

  • There is only one approach that truly encompassess free will: the humanistic approach
  • The humanistic approach sees the individual at the heart of their own destiny, actively making decisions, shaping their life rather than allowing external forces to shape it for them
  • Key components of the humanistic approach that exemplify free will are: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs; Roger’s client-centred therapy; unconditional positive regard; self-actualisation
• arguments to support free will

  • Free will could be argued to be one of the most valuable assets an individual can have i.e. people living in dictatorships are not able to fully exercise their free will and this is sure to impact negatively on their well-being and sense of self
  • The humanistic approach is the only approach that is holistic in that it considers the whole person within real contexts, giving it high validity as a theory
• arguments against free will

  • The concept of free will remains a little vague and is difficult to test
  • The concept of free will may be incompatible with certain cultures who place an emphasis and value on community and duty rather than on individualism
• nature vs nurture

  • probably the oldest debate in psychology and is based on the argument that it is either genes or environment that determine behaviour
  • The nature side of the debate is based on the idea that heredity is key to human behaviour
  • The nurture side of the debate is based on the idea that environmental influences such as family life, peers, education, culture are key to human behaviour
• nature

  • Behaviour is innate, a product of  genetic inheritance
  • Behaviour can be understood by studying biological processes and structures such as hormones, neurotransmitters, regions of the brain
  • Methodologies involved include brain scanning e.g. PET, MRI; concordance rates in twin studies; DNA analysis via urine or saliva samples 
  • The extreme nature argument suggests that some behaviours are entirely biologically-based e.g. women are born to be carers whereas men are born to be providers
• pro nature

  • Bowlby’s theory of attachment is an example of a pro-nature argument as he based his ideas on the work of ethologists such as Lorenz, concluding that attachment is an essential evolutionary mechanism needed for the survival of the species
• arguments for nature

  • Understanding genetic inheritance has helped to identify atypical chromosome patterns as seen in a condition such as Klinefelter’s syndrome, which is clear indication of a biological basis to behaviour
  • The discovery of the nAChR nicotinic receptor in the brain is compelling evidence for a pro-nature explanation of nicotine addiction
• arguments against nature

  • Using a purely nature-based approach can result in prejudiced, overly deterministic, possibly dangerous assumptions being made about people based on their gender, ethnicity, sexuality etc.
  • Twin studies have failed to show 100% concordance between monozygotic (identical) twins which demonstrates that the environment also plays a role in behaviour, even for people who share exactly the same DNA
• nurture

  • Behaviour is learned, a product of  environmental factors
  • Behaviour can be understood by studying environmental influences such as upbringing, relationships, schooling etc.
  • Methodologies involved include classical and operant conditioning; experiments on social roles such as the Stanford Prison experiment; field studies such as Schaffer and Emmerson (1964) 
  • The extreme nurture view suggests that human beings are born as a ‘blank slate’ (the basis of hard determinism) which is ready to be ‘written on’ by life experiences
• arguments for nurture

  • Behaviour can be shaped and changed by the environment as evidenced by the two-process model which states that phobias are learned via classical conditioning and reinforced via operant conditioning
  • Theories such as the deprivation model of aggression demonstrate that the situation may prevail over individual personality traits thus it is the environment that produces aggression, not the person
• arguments against nurture

  • Although twin studies do not show a 100% concordance rate they are still strong indicators that some behaviours may have a genetic basis 
  • The nurture side of the debate cannot account for individual differences within children raised in the same family environment i.e. one child may become criminal while the other child does not; one child may develop a drug addiction while the other child does not
• interactionist approach (1)

  • The interactionist approach is used by most psychologists today when considering the impact of nature/nurture on an individual
  • A genetic predisposition can be moderated or even ‘switched on’ by the environment as seen in the diathesis-stress model and in the theory of epigenetics
  • An interactionist approach is more holistic than an extreme nature/nurture approach as it acknowledges the complex relationship between biology, psychology and environment which is a more valid explanation of behaviour
• interactionist approach (2)

  • Constructivism is based around interactivist ideas with its emphasis on people picking environments suited to their natural likes, dislikes, habits, talents etc. 
  • Conditions such as gender identity disorder and schizophrenia benefit from an interactionist approach as they involve different levels of explanation
• holism

  • Taking a holistic approach to research involves the researcher using a range of methods (usually qualitative) in order to achieve a fuller understanding of a topic
  • Holistic research will not just focus on one, limited explanation of a behaviour or phenomenon, rather it will take into account the various different explanations that may contribute to it
  • The humanistic approach is the only approach that takes a fully holistic approach to understanding behaviour with its emphasis on phenomenology