Social distribution of crime

• The sociologists who talk about ethnicity: Bowling and Phillips, Gilroy and Hall
• Bowling and Phillips argued that black and Asian people are more likely than white people to be stopped and searched and that stereotypes play a role in crime punishments. They also think that ethnic minority groups are more likely to remain silent and deny offence, which may suggest that these groups are more likely to be arrested for offences they haven't committed. However, they do note the impact of demographic factors meaning that ethnic minority communities are more likely to be unemployed, live in inner-cities and spend time in public places.
• Gilroy argued for a 'myth of black criminality' meaning that police are stereotyping and having racist labelling. He thinks that it goes back to the past, leading to resistance against white dominated authorities.
• Hall argued for the moral panics surrounding black muggers in the 1970s. The media forced the idea that Black people are criminals.
• The ratio of male to female offenders hasn't changed very much in terms of recorded crime. There are still more male offenders than female. Men are more likely to be imprisoned and have longer sentences. They are 3 times more likely to be sent to court. Females are most likely to commit fraud out of all the crimes.
• Different explanations for the gender differences in crime rates:

  • The chivalry thesis
  • Gender roles
  • Liberation
  • Social control
  • Poverty.
  • Hidden female offenders
• The chivalry thesis is the idea that females are more likely to get away with crimes or with less severe punishments because men are socialized to be kind and soft to women. Self-report studies do seem to suggest that official statistics may underrepresent female offending.
• The gender role theory is the idea that there are core elements of the female role that limit their ability and opportunity to do so. Such as via socialisation leads to women being raised with values that doesn't lead to crime.
• Heidensohn (liberation theory) argued that female offenders have experienced the benefits of women's liberation meaning that they enjoy the freedom.
• Heidensohn (social control) thought that females are less likely to commit crimes because they are subject to more social control. They are more subject to informal sanctions like gossip, bad reputation or the comments of males.
• Pollak (hidden female offenders) claimed official statistics underestimates female offenders because women were naturally more skilled than men at hiding their crimes. This means that they are more likely to escape prosecutions etc.
• Carlen (poverty theory) did a study of women and found that they were mainly from the working-class and that their class and gender interacted in explaining the offending of these women. They had no reason to conform to society, had little success and experienced poverty. There was a 'class and gender deal' meaning that they had to sacrifice freedom just to get consumer products and they had to accept marriage.
• Sociologists that look at class: Marx, Merton, Lea , Young and Miller
• The idea of class bias refers to the idea that the working class are more likely to be labelled because of preexisting stereotypes. The crimes of the rich are hidden, and the working class are subject to more intense policing.
• The idea of crimes of the ruling class refers to corporate crime that goes unnoticed or unpunished by the justice system. These crimes aren't as obvious as things like street crime, they are hidden such as fraud.
• Marx argued that crime is a product of class inequality. If someone of the working class doesn't have a job, then they are dehumanized leading them to turn to crime because work is essential to human dignity. The poverty that capitalism created pushed the working class to commit crimes.
• Merton argued that crime is a result of anomie. The working class have restricted opportunities to succeed and so they turn to illegitimate ways.
• Lea and Young argued that the feeling of being deprived and having a sense of marginalization leads to crime. People don't have their expectations met and may create subcultures.
• Miller (cultural impacts) argued that crime is a response to low-paid working-class jobs. They create a lifestyle separate from capitalism and one of the senses of status they have is toughness.