China 01

• What was China like in 1900?

  emperor of China ruled over 300 million subjects, majority of whom were peasents.

  
  

  The Chinese were made up of four main ethnic groups: the Han, Manchu, Mongols and Tibetans. The Han Chinese made up 90% of the population. Despite this, it was the Manchu who ruled in 1900.
• How was China governed in 1900?

  China was ruled as an empire, as it had been for thousands of years.

  
  

  The current rulers were the Qing Dynasty, also known as the Manchus.

  
  

  The emperor lived in the Forbidden City in Pecking (Beijing).

  
  

  The emperors held the right to rule through the Mandate of Heaven, a doctrine that stated that they had been chosen by fate to rule and to maintain the natural order of the universe.
• Why was China in decline by 1900? (Military defeats)

  China had been defeated by the British and French in the Opium Wars and the resulting unequal treaties had opened Chinese ports to Western traders by granting them concession zones and treaty ports under the direct rule of the Western powers.

  
  

  Japanese had also defeated China in the First Sino-Japanese war of 1894-5, conquering Korea, Taiwan and Port Arthur. This further humiliated and weakened the Qing.
• Why was China in decline by 1900?

  As the West gained more influence over China,anti-foreign sentiment grew. Many Chinese resented how the 'foreign devils' exploited China and profited from it. Some Chinese believed that the western-built railways would disturb dragons and that telegraph wires were poisonous.

  
  

  Following the Opium Wars, Christian missionaries flooded into China to convert the people. Many Chinese were suspicious of these people and violent outbursts against them were common.

  
  

  As the Qing's grasp on the Mandate of Heaven weakened during the 19th century they faced a series of internal rebellions against their rule, including the Taiping Rebellion. It was eventually crushed but it demonstrated Qing weakness as the emperor had to turn to the British for help.
• Causes of the Boxer Rebellion? (Anti-Western feeling)

  Economic exploitation: foreign powers were exploiting China's resources. People were suspicious of the impact of western technology e.g. railways. This contributed to the uprising because it built resentment, rebellion was seen as a way to throw out foreigners + end exploitation.

  
  

  Religious missionaries: they were converting the Chinese to Christianity, which undermined Confucian + Buddhist ideas. This contributed to the uprising because Rebellion was a way of ending the conversion. The boxers attacked churches and Chinese Christians.

  
  

  Military and diplomatic humiliations: Defeats in conflict such as the opium wars + Sino-Japanese war had led to the humiliating unequal treaties. This contributed to the uprising because rebellion would help reverse the humiliation + restore Chinese independence.
• Causes of the Boxer Rebellion? (The role of the Qing Dynasty)

  The failure of Emperor Guangxu and the 'Hundred Days Reform': tried to modernise the gov by ending the policy of making concessions to foreigners. However Cixi and her supporters opposed the reforms, seized control of the gov. + ended them. This contributed to the uprising because the end of the reforms showed that the gov could not address the issue of the foreign devils, so the Boxers had to take action into their own hands.

  
  

  The role of Dowager Empress Cixi: she encouraged attacks on foreigners during the uprising to distract people from the Qing's failures. This contributed to the uprising because this escalated the rebellion especially after the Cixi declared war on the foreigners.
• Who were the Boxers?

  Full name: Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists.

  
  

  They were mostly peasants who had suffered from natural disasters, they blamed their troubles on the influence of foreign powers and Christians.
• What happened during the Boxer Rebellion?

  The Boxers attacked foreigners and Chinese Christian's. They attacked missionaries, burned down their churches and schools.

  
  

  The attacks began in three regions in North-East China before spreading to Beijing. There, the German ambassador was shot and the western population was forced to retreat into the British legation. The Boxers surrounded the legation in a siege lasting 55 days.

  
  

  Dowager Empress Cixi, hoping to divert attention away from the failures of her government, threw her support behind the Boxers and declared war on the foreign powers.
• How did the Boxer Rebellion end?

  The foreign powers raised a multi-nation army to defeat the Boxers.

  
  

  Many Boxers were executed in the streets by the international soldiers.

  
  

  Cixi and the Emperor disguised themselves as peasants and fled to Xi'an.
• what were the reforms introduced after the Boxer Rebellion?

  called the New Policies or the Late Qing Reform, these changes attempted to learn from the West's strengths and apply them to the Chinese situation. E.g. Introduction of provincial assemblies with a limited right to vote, 1909. + the establishment of a 'new Army' under Manchu control, 1908.
• what were the causes of the 1911 Revolution (Political - leadership)?

  In 1911, China lacked strong leadership. Both Emperor Guangxu and Empress Cixi died in November 1908. The new emperor, Puyi, was just five years old in 1911. Prince Chun, the Guangxu Emperor's brother, acted as regent, but he was inexperienced and ineffective. Prince Chun also dismissed a leading General, Yuan Shikai, fearing that he was becoming too powerful. Yuan was enraged and swore to get revenge. THIS CONTRIBUTED TO THE UPRISING BECAUSE...

  - those in charge where unable to provide effective leadership or address China's problems.

  - Yuan would turn on the Qing in the revolution + use the army against them.
• what were the causes of the 1911 Revolution (Political - changes)?


  Changes from the Late Qing Reform were too little, too late, and failed to address the widespread issues affecting China and its people. The National Consultative Council that was introduced in 1910 was dominated by the Manchus, which angered the Han majority. the provincial assemblies introduced in 1909 could only be voted for by 0.4% of the population. Calls for faster reform were ignored. THIS CONTRIBUTED TO THE UPRISING BECAUSE...

  - emphasised the gov's failure to address problems: revolution seemed the only way to cause change.
• what were the causes of the 1911 Revolution (Political - revolutionary ideas)?

  Revolutionary ideas began to spread, challenging the authority of the Qing and their government. One particularly important revolutionary was Sun Yat-sen. He had been educated in the West and helped to introduce the ideas of nationalsim and republicanism to China, arguing that the Qing had to be overthrown in order for China to modernise. Although he was in exile from 1895-1911, this did not stop his ideas from gaining traction in China, particularly amongst young, educated men. In July 1905 he founded the Tongmenghui or Chinese Revolutionary Alliance in Tokyo. Seven abortive uprisings took place between 1906-08 and membership had grown to about 10,000 by 1911. Many military personnel had begun to join secretive societies like the Tongmenghui. THIS CONTRIUTED TO THE UPRISING BECAUSE ...

  
  

  - this created more opposition against the Qing. The Tongmenghui would play a key role in launching the uprisings in 1911.
• what were the causes of the 1911 Revolution (Economic - tax)?

  Attempts to reform the army proved to be expensive, which led to tax increases on tea, wine, salt, and land, which were unpopular with the people who were already faced with high taxes to pay for the reparations from the Boxer Rebellion. Torrential rains in 1910 to 1911 led to bad harvests and food shortages. Grain prices rose, millions died of hunger, and homeless peasants flooded into the cities. Such disasters added further weight to the idea that the Qing were loosing the Mandate of Heaven. THIS CONTRIBUTED TO THE UPRISING BECAUSE..

  - this gave people the belief that the Qing needed to be overthrown + further added to discontent across China.
• what were the causes of the 1911 Revolution (Economic - railways)?

  there was growing anger over the railways. Nationalism had increased Manchu control in the provinces and the previous owners were angry about not receiving full levels of contribution. The Qing made matters worse by borrowing money from the West and giving 'Foreign Devils' permission to build the tracks. To many Han Chinese, it looked like the Qing and the West were partners. This led to widespread discontent; by September 1911, the whole of Sichuan province was in chaos following attempts to nationalise the railways there and a government crackdown on protestors. THIS CONTRIBUTED TO THE UPRISINGS BECAUSE....

  - anger over the railways built hatred against the Qing and acted as a trigger for uprisings in parts of China.
• The 1911 Revolution - October 1911?


  on the 9th of October, dissident soldiers accidentally exploded a home-made bomb inside a building in Hankou (a district of Wuhan). Some people in the city took this as a sign that a revolution was beginning, whist the soldiers, fearing an investigation and their arrest, decided to mutiny which they did the following day in the Double Tenth (10th day of the 10th month). Soldiers in Wuhan mutinied and massacred any Manchus they could capture, declaring their independence from the Qing.
• The 1911 Revolution - October to November 1911?


  the mutinies and rebellions quickly spread across China. By the end of November, fifteen of China's eighteen provinces had rebelled, declaring themselves independent of the Qing government in Beijing. There was no sense of unified rebellion, but many of the uprisings were organised by regional members of the Tongmenghui. In Mongolia and Tibet, independence movements threw off Chinese rule. In most places, the rebels succeeded with minimal violence, but in some places there were massacres of Manchu people and sympathisers.

  
  

  the Qing, meanwhile, appealed to General Yuan Shikai, making him Prime Minister and Commander-in-Chief of the armies in return for his support in crushing the rebellion. However, after arriving in Wuhan, Yuan betrayed the government and sided with the the rebels.
• The 1911 Revolution - January 1912?


  the rebels formed a new government in Nanjing in November and invited Sun Yat-sen back from his exile in America to become President of a new republican government. His inauguration took place on the 1st of January. However whilst Sun was the popular candidate, it was Yuan who had the backing of the army and thus the real power. Yuan persuaded Sun to be replaced as President, promising to persuade the Qing to abdicate and to set up a republic in their place. However, Yuan actually went on to rule as a dictator.
• The 1911 Revolution - February 1912?


  Sun agreed to Yuan's demands in order to avoid a civil war. Faced with threats of further bloodshed, the new regent, Dowager Empress Longyu, signed the abduction decree on the 12th of February, acknowledging that the Mandate of Heaven had passed to the new republican government. As part of the settlement, the emperor and his family were permitted to remain in the Forbidden City, keep their treasure, and receive an annual allowance of US$4 million a year.
• Yuan Shikai 1912-1916?


  - he allowed parties to be established and elections to be held for a new National Assembly in 1913.

  
  

  - was not prepared to share power, in Jan 1914, after Sun Yat-sen's National People's Party (GMD) won the largest share of the vote, Yuan outlawed political parties + made himself president.

  
  

  - Yuan used loyal generals to control China's provinces and made deals with European powers.

  
  

  - By 1915, Yuan felt confident enough to make himself emperor. He accepted the Mandate of Heaven and announced that his new dynasty would be known as 'The Grand Constitutional Era'

  
  

  - He was unpopular for a number of reasons and faved opposition from a range of groups.
• Groups + why they opposed Yuan Shikai (1915)


  Sun Yat-Sen and the Guomindang - wanted a democratic gov.

  
  

  The military - feared that they would lose authority if Yuan gained more power.

  
  

  The Japanese - wanted to bring large areas of China under their control.
• What were Japan's Twenty-One Demands?

  Were particularly damaging to Yuan. Japan wanted: Japanese control, through advisers, of Chinese financial, political, and police affairs ; control of railways and mines on Shandong province, special economic concessions in Manchuria, and various other economic and political concessions. Yuan's agreement in 1915 further stoked anger against him and led to widespread rebellion, with many army garrisons mutinying.

  
  

  The rebellions meant that Yuan's time as Emperor was short-lived, and he was forced to abandon them after 83 days, dying shortly afterwards in June 1916. His death ushered in a new age of chaos for China.
• What were warlords?


  Following Yuan Shikai's death in 1916 there was no one leader who was strong to popular enough to nite China under his rule. The result was the collapse of the central government, which had no power outside of Beijing. In its place, powerful generals established themselves as local leaders, sing their armies to maintain power.
• What are 2 examples of warlords?

  - Zang Zongzhang was a ruthless bandit who seized power in Shandong by force. He was known for 'splitting melons', the term he used to describe splitting his opponents' heads. He enjoyed terrorising his local population and destroying their resources.

  
  

  - Feng Yuxiang was known as the 'Christian warlord'. He was famous for baptising his soldiers en masse with a hosepipe. He wanted his provenance to be governed by moral vales and used strict punishments to enforce this.
• What features were typical of the warlords in China? (1916-1927)

  - None of them were prepared to give up their private armies or submit to an outside authority.

  
  

  - they were cruel rulers.

  
  

  - they made agreements with foreign powers who wanted to protect their economic interests in China.
• What impact did the Warlords have on China?

  Under the Warlords, suffering increased immensely for the Chinese people, who were treated with great cruelty. Many peasants were forced to enlist and fight for their local leaders. Furthermore, when drought hit the country in 1918 and flooding ruined crops in 1923-25, there was no effective central government to organise relief for the people.

  
  

  As a result of the widespread violence, there was an increased of nationalist feeling in China. Many radical revolutionaries sed the chaos of the Warlord Era to find increased direction and purpose. In this sense, the period can be seen as a unifying force amongst the revolutionaries, giving groups such as the GMD and CCP a common goal.
• What was the May Fourth Movement of 1919?

  Anti-imperialist (anti foreign power) and demanded the restoration of Chinese independence and sovereignty. It's leaders also wanted socio-political reform, particularly the eradication of Confucian vales, which they blamed for China's weaknesses, and a society based in democratic government, liberal values, science and industry. Chinese nationalist called for the adoption of Western ideals of 'Mr Science' and 'Mr Democracy' in pace of 'Mr Confucius'.
• What were the causes of the May the Fourth movement (Long-term intellectual trends)?

  Growing discontent with traditional Chinese culture. In the 1800s, the Strengthening Movement, endorsed limited economic and educational reforms, whilst the Hundred Days' reforms of 1898 reinterpreted Confucianism to allow for political and social reform, which were then built on by the limited Late Qing Reforms. The failure of the early republic and the warlords led intellectuals to make further criticism of traditional Chinese methods and beliefs.

  
  

  In the 1910s these ideas became known as the CULTURE MOVEMENT which argued that Confucianism and classical philosophy had little relevance or value in 20th century China. For China to survive and prosper, it had to embrace modern, Western ideas and values. These ideas were built upon by the students who launched the May the Fourth Movement.
• What were the causes of the May the Fourth movement (Treaty of Versailles)?

  1917, China had joined WWI in the side of the Allies, on the condition that German spheres of influence in China, like Shandong province, would be returned to China. They also hoped for an end to the unequal treaties and for Japan to withdraw the Twenty-One Demands. As part of the war effort, 140,000 Chinese labourers were sent to work for the British in France.

  
  

  However, by the time of the negotiations that would lead to the Treaty of Versailles, China had fully descended into warlordism and had no effective government to represent them. Chinese interests were overlooked in the treaty, which handed Germany's sphere of influence in Shandong over to the Japanese. When this decision became public, it triggered the May the Fourth protests.
• What happened in the May the Fourth Movement?


  On the morning of May 4 1919, student representatives from thirteen different local universities met in Beijing and drafted five resolutions at a protest at Tiananmen Square.

  
  

  1. To oppose the granting of Shandong to the Japanese.

  2. To draw awareness of China's precarious position to the masses in China.

  3. To recommend a large-scale gathering in Beijing

  4. To promote the creation of a Beijing student union.

  5. To hold a demonstration that afternoon in protest to the terms of the ToV.

  
  

  The movement soon spread to the learner cities across China, where protests and strikes took place. What had begun as a student-centred movement expanded to include labour and political groups.
• What were the effects of the May the Fourth Movement?

  Tensions only eased after the government released student prisoners, sacked several key ministers and instructed its negotiators in Europe not to sign the Treaty of Versailles, Japan, however, still assumed control of Shandong.

  
  

  The May the Fourth Movement had a long lasting impact on China. Before the events of 1919, many Chinese reformists had placed their faith in Western political leaders. The Treaty Of Versailles demonstrated clearly that China could not wait for Western nations to help it and that China was responsible for its own political development and its own fate. Consequently, the May Fourth Movement energised Chinese political movements, particularly revolutionary groups - the Chinese Communist Party being a notable example.
• Who was Sun Yat-sen?

  He was the founder and first leader of the GMD. Dies on 12th March 1925.
• What were Suns aims?

  Nationalism: remove foreigners + restore China's nationalism.

  Democracy: Chinese people control own gov through elections.

  Livelihood of the people: solve problem of poverty by develop in industries (gov. owned) + protecting from foreigners.
• How did Sun try to achieve these aims?

  - Sun establishes the Whampoa Military Academy

  - GMD became a military organisation with an army (the New Republican Army/NRA)
• How did the Bolsheviks help Sun and the GMD in 1924?

  Two Bolsheviks - Adolph Joffe and Michael Borodin - were sent to China after Sun asked the USSR for help. They reorganised the GMC as a large-scale party with strong central leadership. They also helped acquire weapons from the USSR and trained soldiers at the Whampoa Military Academy. (Start of Soviet influence in China.)
• Why did Chiangmai Kai-she's become leader of the GMD in 1925

  - Sun died in 1925

  - Chiangmai was in charge of the NRA + used this to his advantage.

  - Chiang had the support of the USSR, including Borodin.
• What are the reasons for the development of Chinese communism (the May the Fourth movement)?

  This encouraged the spread of revolutionary ideas of which Marxism was one of several founding members of CCP had been involved in the May 4th Movement.
• What are the reasons for the development of Chinese communism (the Russian Revolution 1917/ October Revolution)?


  Russia + China were similar - both were political + economically old fashioned. Bolshevik success in Russia made people believe a similar set of event should happen in China.
• When was the Chinese Communist Party founded?

  In secret in a girls school in Shanghai June 192@ mak was part of the initial group.
• Why did the Bolshevik's think that the best way for revolution to grow was for the CCP to initially cooperate with the GMD.

  1. CCP was too small to achieve revolution, only 50 members.

  
  

  2. conditions in China were not ready, revolutions had to be lead by workers but most of China were peasants.

  
  

  3. GMD's 3 principles similar to communist ideas, rooted in` ideas of equality.