superpowers

• there are reserves of oil and natural gas in the Arctic Circle (with some estimates placing the volume of oil at 90 million barrels). unlike Antarctica, the area around the North Pole is not that well protected from resource exploitation. this means that many countries are making territorial claims of the Arctic ocean, the seabed beneath it and the Lomonosov Ridge
• Canada, USA, Russia, Norway and Denmark (through its connection to Greenland) have made territorial claims in the area as they all have land territory that borders the ocean. Most of the countries' territorial claims on the Arctic are for the areas closest to their country

  however, the position of these countries in relation to the Arctic Circle means that there are overlapping claims based on each country's EEZ
• in the Arctic, there are disputes between the USA and Canada as well as between Russia and Norway. Russia planted a Russian flag on the seabed at the North Pole in 2007, which intensified disputes in the region
• both USA and Russia are powers with a significant military presence in the region, as the warming Arctic loses ice (as a result of climate change) and the region becomes easier to navigate, naval ships can move their position closer to the disputed area. Greater accessibility, also means that test drilling for oil and gas can take place in the disputed areas
• china has looked to expand its marine territory into the South China Sea in order to make use of the fishing grounds and the oil and gas reserves in the area. it has done this by claiming a number of small and, until recently, largely uninhabited islands (like the Spratly Islands and Scarborough Shoal). this has expanded the EEZ of China, which now has a much larger marine territory
• other countries in the South China Sea (the Philippine, Malaysia, Vietnam, Indonesia, Brunei and Taiwan) have disputed China's claims on the islands. China has reacted by posting a large naval presence throughout the region. it has also started to construct artificial islands and expand others. these islands have supported the construction of ports, military bases and bases for oil exploration. the creation of new islands has caused disruption to fish breeding cycles and dredging has destroyed coral reeds in the area
• claiming and creating new islands is a direct breach of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). tensions have increased through China saying that foreign militaries have no right to be in the area.

  Japan and China are involved in a dispute in the East China Sea (centred around the Senkaku islands). this dispute is over the oil and gas resources found in the area as well as the fishing grounds
• the collapse of the USSR in 1991 created a number of new independent states in Eastern Europe, which mostly kept close political and cultural ties to Russia. some of these countries, such as Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, have already joined the EU and NATO. these new western ideologies have created tension between Russia and its former communist states and has resulted in Russia trying to maintain a presence in areas through military force
• in February 2014, Russia annexed the Crimean Peninsula in southern Ukraine. Russian forces (along with pro-Russian Ukrainian separatists) took control of the military bases an the Crimean parliament. in response, Russia was removed from the G8 and sanctions. these sanctions were applied in 2p14 and included travel bans as well as European and American industries stopping trade with Russian companies. the sanctions that were applied in 2014 are believed to have cost Russia over US$400 billion in revenue from lost oil and gas sales
• the armed conflict began in April 2014 on the Donbass region of eastern Ukraine. the conflict has killed over 3000 civilians and more than 1.4 million Ukrainians have be internally displaced.

  in 2022, the conflict between Russia and Ukraine escalated when Russia launched a full invasion of Ukraine
• the emerging economies, such as China and India, are developing strng trade links with the rest of the world. this means that Asia's geopolitical influence is increasing

  the economic centre of the world is shifting away from Europe and closer to Asia. this is sometimes called the economic centre of gravity and it represents the idea that a far larger proportion of the gloval GDP os generated in Asia
• Asia also represents the global centre of population growth. it is predicted that by 2030, 27 of the world's 33 megacities will be in Asia. this means there is an increasingly large market for goods in the region, mostly being consumed by middle-income groups

  as well as China and India, there are a number of other rapidly growing economies in Asia. Indonesia and Malaysia saw steady increases in their GDP between 2000 and 2019, compared to Europe which has experienced a decline in their GDP
• in 2020, 15 Asian-Pacific countries (ASEAN members, China, Japan, South Korea, Australia and New Zealand) agreed to form the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP). this trade bloc os the largest in history and includes almost a third of all global economic activity

  this rise in importance has created both economic and political stress, especially between countries who have past histories of tension and conflicts
• china has strained political relationships with other countries over its leadership of Hong Kong, its conflict with Taiwan and its control over Tibet

  China's attempts to control the South China Sea has created regional and international tensions

  tensions between India and Pakistan over the future of the disputed region of Kashmir has the potential to have a negative impact on the political and economic prospects of each country

  the establishment of China-Pakistan Trade Corridor has increased tensions between India and China and Pakistan