Forensic

• Top-down approach (TDA)


  Theories or ideas are applied to data - in the case of offender profiling the data comes in the form of the crime scene
• Top-down approach (TDA)


  Deductive as it applies ideas, theories and concepts to the information at the crime scene and bases conclusions on it i.e. it tests an existing theory/idea
• Organized crimes


  • Well planned, victim specifically targeted, body hidden, careful to leave little evidence
• Organized offender profile


  • Intelligent, well-educated, socially and sexually competent
• Disorganized crimes


  • Unplanned, random selection of victim, leave evidence behind such as blood or semen
• Disorganized offender profile


  • Lower intelligence, sexually incompetent, live alone (near to crime scene), mental health problems, abused in childhood
• Canter et al - 39 American serial murders were analysed: the results showed that the label organised/disorganized could not easily be applied to the crimes and that there may be a subset of organised characteristics that typify serial murder whereas disorganised murder rarely fits into a distinct typology
• The usefulness of the typology approach is limited to only murderers and rapists as the technique was developed using murderers and rapists
• Issues with the validity of the data gathered in the interviews. Serial killers are unlikely to be a trustworthy source of information!
• The findings are unlikely to represent all offenders (including those who have not been caught) as only 36 male offenders had been caught
• Bottom-up approach


  Uses the crime scene as the basis for the creation of a profile
• Bottom-up approach


  Inductive as it uses information already present and draws ideas, theories and conclusions from it i.e., it aims to develop a theory from the data presented
• Interpersonal coherence


  • Behaviour is consistent across situations; with the way a crime is committed reflecting on everyday behaviour
• Time and place


  • Positioning and timing of the crime will give clues as to where the offender lives or works
• Forensic awareness


  • Offenders who show awareness of forensic investigation (e.g. clean the crime scene) will probably have been through the criminal justice system before
• Smallest space analysis


  A statistical technique used to identify how likely a feature of a crime scene is to coexist with another feature. Using this method, distinct categories of crimes can be identified.
• Marauders


  • Commit crimes within their neighborhood, not far from where they live/work possibly as this is where they feel safe plus, they are more likely to know the escape routes to exit the scene as quickly as possible
• Commuters


  • Commit crimes away from their neighbourhood which may be as a result of travelling a lot for work or as a way of avoiding detection
• Geographical profiling


  Applies the 'circle theory' by drawing a circle around the seemingly linked offences: the offender is thought to live somewhere inside the circle
• Geographical profiling is useful for all types of crimes, not just violent offences (unlike the typology approach)
• Geographical profiling relies on data from solved crimes where the criminals have been caught- it may not reflect criminals who have not been caught and who may operate differently
• Geographical profiling has no certainty, and therefore profiles generated may be misleading. If the profile is incorrect then this can severely hinder an investigation
• Atavistic form


  Criminal offenders are a biologically distinct group of people exhibiting primitive characteristics. They are a separate species with a primitive genetic form (atavistic).
• Lombroso's (1876) data was based on survey data of criminal heads and bodies. He measured the proportions of 383 skulls of dead criminals and the heads of 3839 living ones. He found that 43% had 5 or more atavistic characteristics
• Before Lombroso, religious explanations of criminality predominated, such as the influence of the devil or possession by evil spirits. Lombroso's work has been influential in developing newer, scientific explanations.
• The samples for Lombroso's studies were all convicted criminals, without a control group. It is therefore not possible to know whether atavistic characteristics are just as common in the non-criminal population
• The atavistic form theory had significant racist undertones. Some of the characteristics identified were those typical of people of African origin.
• Certain facial characteristics may be more common in criminals, but this doesn't necessarily indicate a causal relationship. People with these features may be treated differently and have poorer social interactions, leading to criminal behavior due to negative feelings and lower self-esteem.
• Genetics - biological explanation


  Criminal behaviour may be genetically inherited from our parents.
• Christiansen (twin study) and Mednick et al studied 14000 adoptees and found that 15% of boys adopted by a criminal family went on to offend, compared to 20% of those whose biological families were criminal. Conclusion: Genetics and environmental factors both influence offending behaviour, but genetics are marginally more influential than the environment.
• Twin study: MZ twins may share more similar environments than DZ Twins. Impacting the way they are treated. Therefore, the higher concordance rates in MZs could be explained by environmental factors (not just genetic similarities)
• Adoption study: Freud and Bowlby's theories suggest that early experiences can significantly influence a child's development, potentially reducing the support for genetic explanations in adoption studies, as children are not always taken from their biological parents immediately after birth.
• Brunner et al analyzed the DNA of 28 male members of a Dutch family who had a history of violent criminal behaviour such as rape and murder. They found that they shared a variation of the MAOA gene which led to abnormally low levels of MAOA (monoamine oxidase a).
• Psychodynamic - Blackburn


  Superego (3 types) is responsible for moral behavior & can lead to offending behavior: weak, deviant, and over-harsh.
• Weak superego


  Lacks a same-sex parent, resulting in no moral code and no inhibition - no guilt.
• Deviant superego


  Identifies with an immoral same sex parent, leading to a deviant moral code.
• Over-harsh superego


  Excessive punitiveness (superego) and guilt-seeking behavior, leading to impulsive criminal behavior.
• Psychodynamic theories cannot be falsified or empirically tested. Therefore, there is a lack of scientific evidence
• Freud's theory suggests that children raised in single-parent households may not fully develop their superego, leading to increased offending. However, not all children in single-parent families become immoral and offend, contradicting Blackburn's weak superego theory.
• MZ - M 35%, DZ - M 13%, MZ - F 21%, DZ - F 8%