migration, identity and sovereignty

• when China opened its borders to international trade in the late 1970s, China's manufacturing industries grew rapidly - especially in cities in China's coastal provinces e.g. Shanghai and Guangzhou

  millions of people moved to these cities from rural area and poorer inland provinces to find better paid jobs in China's growing industries. in 1989 approximately 30 million rural migrants were working in China's cities, and by 2008 this had risen to around 140 million
• political and economic changed that have happened (as part of globalisation) include some countries encouraging the free movement of people across borders. this has increased migration by making it easier for people to live and work in different countries
• in the EU, citizens of member countries have the right to live, work and study in other member countries without needing special visas or permits. the level of globalisation differs between countries. overall, countries in Western Europe are more globalised than countries in Eastern Europe, and have more skilled jobs available and higher wages, which drives migration. in 2020, nearly 200000 Romanians migrated to Germany
• most EU countries are also members of the Schengen Agreement. this is an agreement between 27 European countries. within the Schengen area, anyone can travel between countries without needing a visa or having to show a passport
• in 2020, there were approximately 281 million international migrants across the world. this is equal to around 3.6% of the global population living outside there country of birth

  in this year, the USA was the world's biggest recipient of migrants - it was home to 50.6 million international migrants, around 15% of its population. however, Qatar has a lot more migrants relative to the size of their population. it has a population of 3 million but received around 2.2 million migrants in202, 73% of its population
• historically, Japan has had very strict policies on immigration, even though it's been very involved in the global economy. the Immigration Control and Refugee Recognition Act made it very difficult for international migrants to move or get jobs there, or to stay in the country longer than a few years. Japan has a very low proportion of migrants - in 2017 only 2.1% of the population didn't have Japanese nationality.

  Japanese = 97.9% Chinese = 0.6% Korean = 0.4% and Filipino = 1.1%
• however, in recent years, the Japanese government has become concerned about the country's aging population and labour shortages. it's loosened some of restrictions on immigration to allow more people of working age, especially skilled workers in certain sectors like construction, farming and health care, to enter the country
• each year, thousands of refugees and migrants cross the Mediterranean to Europe. many of these are refugees from countries in conflict, such as Syria and Afghanistan, who are hoping to find asylum in Europe.

  in 2015, more than 60% of people who made the crossing were fleeing from war-torn countries. other people are fleeing countries because they are experiencing human rights violations and risk the journey to live in a safer society
• in 2021, over 123000 refugees and migrants arrived on Europe's Mediterranean coast from Turkey and North Africa. it's a very dangerous route - 3200 people died or went missing trying to make the crossing that year. since 2014, nearly 25000 people have died attempting to cross the Mediterranean

  when refugees and migrants reach Europe they are often faced with unhygienic conditions, a lack of sheltered accommodation and hostility from authorities
• in some countries and regions, governments have freedom of movement policies to encourage economic migration. within the UK, there aren't any restrictions on people moving between different areas

  around 1 million people move a significant distance within England and Wales each year. many of those moving are young, skilled people moving to cities for work - but this is balanced by an outflow of oder people moving to rural areas
• the EU allows the free movement of people between member states. in 2015, around 4% of people born in the EU were living in a different country within the EU than where they were born

  Germany has the highest number of EU migrants. in 2019, nearly 600000 people migrated from other EU member stated to Germany - this accounted for 40% of total migration to Germany
• perceptions of migration vary throughout EU member states. in 2018, 62% of Swedish nationals believe that migrants make their country stronger, compared to only 10% of Greeks

  in the 2016 Brexit Referendum, some people voted for the UK to leave the EU as they were unhappy with the free movement of people within the EU
• Mexico is one of the biggest source countries of migration to the USA 0 it's home to around 11 million Mexican migrants, about a quarter of the total number of migrants in the USA

  the USA is the most popular destination for migrants from Mexico, who include both low-skilled workers and more highly skilled professionals. most Mexican migrants live in the states of California and Texas, which share a border with `Mexico
• Iceland has a very homogenous population - around 93% of its population is ethnically Icelandic, most descended from Viking settlers. there's not much cultural or religious diversity - the dominant religion is Christianity (up to 70% of Icelanders belong to the Lutheran Church), and around 96% of the population speak Icelandic
• one cause of Iceland's lack of diversity is the country's isolation. as a small island in the middle of the Atlantic, it's relatively difficult for migrants to get to - this was especially the case before planes. Iceland also maintained its cultural unity by encouraging immigrants to assimilate - up until 1996, immigrants had to change their name to an Icelandic name. however, people are applying for citizenship are still required to prove a basic understanding of Icelandic. This policy helps to maintain cultural homogeneity in Iceland
• Singapore is a small nation state between Malaysia and Indonesia. there's no single Singaporean ethnicity - the population is made up of people from Chinese, Malay, Indian and other ethnic groups. each of these groups is also fairly diverse - they include speakers of several languages (e.g. English, Mandarin and Malay) and dialects and followers of different religions (e.g. Buddhism, Christianity and Islam)
• this diversity is a result of Singapore's long history of migration and its central location on trade routes between India and China. before Singapore became an independent nation in 1965, it was colonised by the UK. the growth of Singapore's economy (before and after gaining independence) encouraged migrants from countries surrounding Singapore to provide labour
• in 1916, the UK and France drew up plans, called the Sykes-Picot Agreement, to divide part of the Middle East between them. this boundary ran approximately along the modern boundary between Syria and Iraq

  the plans took little notice of ethnic or religious groupings, meaning that some groups, such as Kurds, became minorities in several countries, and had little power. the UK also supported Sunni Muslims in the region, making them more powerful than other groups
• tension between different groups and disputes over boundaries have led to decades of conflict in the region, including calls for a Kurdish state and challenges to current national boundaries by the Islamic State group (ISIL). such disputes undermine the legitimacy of national governments and ca challenge countries' sovereignty
• from 1783 to 1954, the Crimean Peninsular was part of Russia. in 1954, Crimea became part of Ukraine and in 1991 Ukraine became independent

  in February 2014, Russia annexed the Crimean Peninsular in southern Ukraine, and conflict between Russia and Ukraines intensified. Russian forces (along with pro-Russian Ukrainian separatists) took control of the military bases and the the Crimean parliament
• armed conflict between Russian and Ukraine began in April 2014 in the Donbas region in eastern Ukraine

  in 2022, the conflict between the two countries escalated when Russia launched full invasion of Ukraine. this led to large population movements and at the end of 2022 over 7.8million Ukrainian refugees were recorded throughout Europe
• Taiwan is an island off the coast of China in the western Pacific Ocean. during the Chinese Civil War (1945-1949), China's government was defeated by the Chinese Communist Party. in 1949, the government's forces fled to Taiwan and took control of the island. they claimed that they were still the leaders of China, and planned to take back control of mainland China. meanwhile, China's new Communist government refused to recognise their authority - it still argues that Taiwan is actually part of China and isn't a sovereign state
• China has reinforced this message by refusing to have diplomatic relations with countries that recognise Taiwan. fewer than 20 countries officially recognise Taiwan, and some international organisations e.g. the UN, don't treat it as a sovereign nation. this makes it difficult for Taiwan to expand its international influence
• there's a risk of conflict between the two countries. China has fired missiles and carried out military exercises in the sea between mainland China and Taiwan. tensions have increased as the USA (who doesn't recognise Taiwan as a country) has started making several visits to Taiwan. however, the USA still claims to be against an independent Taiwan
• Britain began colonising parts of India around 16000. these colonised areas were controlled indirectly, through trade agreements made between existing rulers and the East India Company
• in 1857, Indian soldiers working for the East Indian Company rebelled against their British officers, setting off a wave of violence between Indian and British people. in response, the British government decided to bring India under its direct control. this period of direct control was known as the British Raj. Indian rulers had to swear an oath of allegiance to Queen Victoria. the Raj used military force to keep control, and promoted British culture, e.g. by setting up English-language schools with euro-centric curriculum
• many Indians were unhappy with British colonialism. young Indian men who's received a British education but has been refused jobs in areas like the civil service started to discuss the idea of India becoming an independent nation. in 1885, the Indian National Congress had its first meeting. it grew into a nationalist movement, calling for India to become independent from Britain and be governed by Indians instead, this involved the boycotting of British goods and schools as well as uprisings against British control
• in some countries, e.g. Ghana independence happened peacefully, but in others, e.g. Kenya, there was violence between nationalist groups and the colonial government

  independence movements often learned from and supported each other, and they gained momentum as more and more colonies became independent. in 1960 alone, 17 African countries became independent. by this time, colonisers left their colonies without any formal government structure in place. this often led to instability and civil war
• in 1960, Harold MacMillan (the British prime minister of the time) said in a speech that "the wind of change is blowing through this continent"
• in the 1890s, Sudan was colonised by the British. between 1899-1955, Sudan was under British-Egyptian rule and in 1956 it became independent
• the new nation was made up of two very different areas. Northern Sudan has a dry climate, and most of its population are Muslim and speak Arabic. the south has a wetter climate and is more fertile, and it's home to a more diverse set of religious (Christians and Muslims) and ethnic groups (Dinka and Nuer). the south is also rich is resources, including 75% of Sudans oil reserves. however, northern Sudan has relatively higher levels of human development than the south. in contrast, southern Sudan has the lowest HDI in the world
• before Sudan became independent the southern areas of the country wanted to be given a degree of independence from the central government. these demands were refused.

  tensions between the north and south grew, leading to a civil war between 1955 and 1972. years later, a violent conflict broke out between the government and the Sudan People's Liberation Army from 1983-2005
• eventually, in 2011, South Sudan became independent from Sudan, but conflict has continued, especially around the control of oil reserves. this is because the infrastructure needed to transport this oil goes through Sudan. there has also been a series of devastating conflicts in Darfur, a region in western Sudan

  from 2013 to 2020, there was a civil ware in South Sudan between different ethnic groups, who supported different leaders.
• social impact - between 2013 and 2018, around 400000 people were killed by the civil war in South Sudan, and nearly 4 million were displaced. NGOs reported many human rights abuses during the civil war, including civilian killings, sexual assault and looting
• economic impact - in 2013, South Sudan spend more than half its entire national budget on its military, and GDP per Capita in 2018 was around 30% what it would have been if there had been no conflict. in Sudan, the conflict on Darfur cost nearly US$90 billion from 2003 to 2017. spending on education and health care is low in both countries, further restricting economic development
• environmental impact - Sudan and South Sudan are vulnerable to desertification as a result of climate change, and this has been made worse by conflict. there's been severe degradation of the land around the refugee camps, and lack of political stability has meant that governments haven't focused on promoting sustainable development
• since 2007, Ecuador has brought in more socialist policies that have helped it to become a more equal society

  in the 1980s and 1990s, Ecuador was unstable and experienced conflict and economic recessions. it has large international debts

  in 2006, Rafael Correa was elected as Ecuador's president. he announced that his new government would put Ecuadorian people first, moving away from the approach of earlier governments. Correa believed they had focused too much on making profits from Ecuador's oil reserves and paying the country's debts
• in 2008, the new national constitution was approved in Ecuador, which included the idea of buen vivir. this idea comes from indigenous South American philosophy. it translates to 'good living', but it means more than that - e.g. that everyone should have a good life that doesn't damage the planet, ad that the wellbeing of the community is more important than the success of one individual. this challenges non-liberal ideas about the importance of individual choice and economic growth
• Correa increased public spending in Ecuador on services and temporarily raised taxes in. order to fund Ecuador's recoverly from an earthquake. his government also sued a US-based oil company for causing environmental damage in the Amazon
• Ecuador's inequality decreased and poverty rates nearly halved between 2006band 2016. this can also be seen by the decrease in the country's Gini coefficient =, which has shown an overall decline since 2003. However, Correa and his policies weren't popular with everyone. he was criticised by indigenous groups and activists for his authoritarian approach and for drilling for oil in a remote part of the Amazon rainforest