The troubles

• • Partition: The Government of Ireland Act 1920 created two separate states: Northern Ireland (six counties: Armagh, Antrim, Down, Derry, Tyrone, and Fermanagh) and the Irish Free State (southern Ireland).
• • Northern Ireland (1921): Had its own parliament at Stormont, dominated by Unionists. It controlled internal affairs like education and healthcare, with its first Prime Minister, Sir James Craig. Northern Ireland sent 12 MPs to Westminster for defense and foreign affairs.
  • Unionists vs Nationalists: Two-thirds of Northern Ireland’s population were Protestant Unionists, and one-third were Catholic Nationalists. Unionists felt threatened by the nationalist minority, who boycotted Stormont for six years in protest.
• Northern Ireland, 1920-1963

  The Sectarian State

  • Discrimination Against Catholics: Gerrymandering ensured Unionist electoral victories, and Catholics faced double the unemployment rate of Protestants. The Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) and B-Specials (a part-time anti-Catholic unit) were predominantly Protestant.
  • Housing and Education: Protestants were favored in public housing, and Protestant schools received more funding than Catholic schools.
• World War II and the Welfare State

  • Belfast Blitz (1941): Belfast was heavily bombed, but the war boosted the Northern Irish economy with increased demand for food and machinery.
  • Welfare State: Post-war British government spending made education and healthcare free, built more public housing, and increased social welfare payments. Funding for Catholic schools improved, leading to a well-educated generation challenging discrimination.
• Civil Rights Activism

  • NICRA (1967): The Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association aimed to disband the B-Specials, end housing and employment discrimination, ensure "one man, one vote" in local elections, and stop gerrymandering. Modeled on the US Civil Rights Movement, NICRA used peaceful protests but faced government bans and violence.
• • Terence O’Neill became Prime Minister, aiming to build bridges between the communities.
  • Economic Policies: Attracted new industries and foreign businesses with tax breaks and grants, benefiting the predominantly Protestant east.
  • Relations with Catholics: O’Neill visited Catholic schools and hospitals and met with Taoiseach Seán Lemass in 1965. Initial optimism faded due to lack of significant changes in housing or employment policies.
  • Unionist Opposition: By 1965, Unionists opposed O’Neill, accusing him of betrayal. Reverend Ian Paisley launched the "O’Neill Must Go" campaign.
• The End of the O’Neill Era

  • Violence and Resignation: Clashes in Derry and Belfast led to British government intervention. In April 1969, O’Neill resigned, replaced by James Chichester-Clark.
• The Beginning of the Troubles

  • Battle of the Bogside (1969): Riots in Derry led to the declaration of "Free Derry." Violence spread, and the British government deployed the army to restore order.
• The Violence Escalates

  • Paramilitary Groups: The Provisional IRA (Provos) targeted the RUC and British army, and loyalist groups like the UVF and UDA attacked Catholics in revenge.
  • New Political Parties: The SDLP (nationalist, founded by Gerry Fitt and John Hume) and the DUP (unionist, founded by Ian Paisley) emerged.
  • Internment (1971): Prime Minister Brian Faulkner introduced internment without trial, targeting Catholics and leading to increased IRA support.
• Bloody Sunday (1972)

  • On 30th January 1972, NICRA's banned march in Derry resulted in the British army killing 14 unarmed protesters, sparking global outrage.
• The Sunningdale Agreement (1973)

  • Power-Sharing: Signed by Unionist, SDLP, British, and Irish leaders, it established a power-sharing executive and cross-border Council of Ireland. The Ulster Workers’ Council Strike (1974) led to its collapse and the resumption of direct rule from Westminster.
• Stalemate

  • The IRA's "spectaculars" targeted Britain, and frequent attacks occurred in Northern Ireland. Loyalist groups also committed atrocities. Major incidents included the Birmingham Pub Bombings (1974) and the Dublin and Monaghan Bombings (1974).
• Hunger Strikes (1981)

  • IRA prisoners demanded political status. Bobby Sands and nine others died, generating global sympathy and increasing Sinn Féin's political involvement.
• The Search for Peace, 1985-1998

  The Anglo-Irish Agreement (1985)

  • Signed by Taoiseach Garret FitzGerald and UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, it aimed to increase security cooperation and give the Republic a role in Northern Ireland’s affairs, facing Unionist opposition.
• Ceasefires and the Good Friday Agreement (1998)

  • Downing Street Declaration (1993): Set terms for all-party talks on Northern Ireland’s future. The IRA and loyalist ceasefires followed in 1994.
• • Good Friday Agreement: Negotiated by US Senator George Mitchell and signed by parties including Ulster Unionists (David Trimble), SDLP (John Hume), Sinn Féin (Gerry Adams), the Irish government (Bertie Ahern), and the British government (Tony Blair). Key terms included power-sharing, cross-border bodies, decommissioning of weapons, and RUC reform. It was approved by referendums in Northern Ireland and the Republic.
• John Hume (1937-2020)

  • John Hume was a key civil rights leader and SDLP founder, advocating for peaceful change. He played a crucial role in the Good Friday Agreement and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize alongside David Trimble. Hume is regarded as one of Ireland’s greatest leaders.
• Legacy of the Troubles

  • The Good Friday Agreement ended most violence, but the Troubles resulted in 3,500 deaths and left Northern Ireland a divided society with deep-rooted grievances.