research methods

• reliability


  research can be repeated to get the same results
• validity


  data is a true picture of what the researcher is trying to measure
• representative


  reflective of the population as a whole
• primary data


  obtained from first hand research, rather than another sociologists research
• secondary data


  gathering data together and analysing it, but not generating the data
• quantitative data


  numbers and statistics that can be put into a graph or chart
• qualitative data


  gives a detailed picture of what people do, think and feel

  • opinions, meanings and interpretations
• positivists


  use reliable methods that give quantitative data

  • behaviour is influenced by external social factors
  • sociology should be scientific
  • statistics to measure relationships between different factors
  • questionnaires and official statistics
• interpretivists


  use valid methods that give qualitative data

  • understand human behaviour using empathy
  • sociology isn't scientific, humans can't be measured
  • participant observations and unstructured interviews
• practical issues

  • time and cost
  • access
  • opportunity
  • characteristics
  • skills
• ethical issues

  • consent
  • deception
  • confidentiality
  • harm
• theoretical issues

  • validity
  • reliability
• questionnaires


  mainly give quantitative data

  • closed questions
  • multiple-choice answers
  • some open questions
• questionnaire advantages

  • time efficient
  • reliable
  • anonymous
  • large sample
  • representative
• questionnaire disadvantages

  • may not conduct truthful answers
  • risk of misleading
  • postal - low response rate
• interviews


  conversation between researcher and interviewee where interviewers ask questions to conduct data
• structured interviews


  questionnaires given face to face

  • ask same questions each time
  • quantitative data and reliable
  • more expensive
  • can't ask for more detail
• unstructured interviews


  informal with no rigid structure

  • flexible
  • good for sensitive issues
  • open ended questions
  • qualitative data and valid
  • require skill to find out details
  • time consuming
• covert observations


  researcher doesn't tell the group they're being observed
• overt observation


  group is aware of the research and they know who the researcher is
• participant observation


  the researcher actively involves themselves in the group
• non-participant observation


  the researcher observes the group but isn't actively part of the group
• class conflict


  conflict that arises between different social classes, usually between bourgeoisie and proletariat
• class consciousness


  set of beliefs a person holds regarding their social class
• consensus view 


  society as a whole finds general agreement or judgment on a specific issue
• practical considerations


  • personal characteristics
  • time
  • access
  • funding
  • cost
• ethical considerations


  • informed consent
  • protection from harm
  • privacy
  • confidentiality
• theoretical considerations


  • validity
  • reliability
  • representativeness
  • data type
• lab/controlled experiments


  hypothesis is tested under controlled environment, focusing on independent and dependent variables.
• field experiments


  hypothesis is tested in the real world and those involved are often unaware
• independent variable


  what researchers manipulate in order to test its effect on the dependent variable
• dependent variable


  the outcome or effect we are measuring within the study
• lab/controlled experiments weaknesses


  • artificiality
  • hawthorne effect
  • consent
  • deception
• lab/controlled experiments strengths


  • highly reliable
  • easily identify cause and effect relationships
• field experiments strengths


  • less artificial
  • people are unaware - no hawthorne effect
• field experiment weaknesses


  • less control over variables
  • limited application
  • consent
• Rosenthal and Jacobson


  • studied teacher expectations, labelling and self-fulfilling prophecy
  • carried out field experiments in schools
  • pupils given IQ tests
  • teachers were told 20% of pupils would spurt
  • same test 8 months later, spurters gained 12 points
• panel study


  a sample is surveyed on two or more occasions, each year same people are interviewed to see how their lives are changing over time
• semi-structured interviews


  each interviewer has the same set of questions but can probe for more information
• group interviews


  several people interviewed together