Cold War Crises 1958-70

• 1. Why did Eisenhower's succession bring hope for the end of the Cold War?

  • President Eisenhower succeeded President Truman in January 1953, while Khrushchev came to power in September
  • This provided an opportunity to create a fresh start - there were several encouraging steps towards defusing tensions between the two powers
• 2. What happened at the Geneva summit?

  • The USA and the USSR met in Geneva in 1955 and agreed to communicate more openly
  • In 1955, the USSR officially recognised the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) as a state
  • Khrushchev also freed some prisoners and reduced censorship in the USSR
• 3. How did West Berlin differ from East Berlin economically?

  • After the Berlin Crisis in 1948, West Berlin was a unified zone and continued to develop economically with its new currency and the Marshall Aid
  • East Berlin was very different - the USSR had drained it of resources and its economy was slow to develop
  • Most people wanted to leave the East to go to the more prosperous West - by 1961, at least 3 million East Germans had emigrated from East Berlin to West Berlin
• 4. How was Khrushchev threatened by the prosperous West Berlin?

  • The fact that so many people were moving to West Berlin was hugely embarrassing for Khrushchev, as it suggested that people preferred life under capitalism to communism
  • It also threatened East Germany's economy, as many of those who left were skilled workers in search of a better life
• 5. What was the Berlin Ultimatum

  • The refugee crisis in Berlin led Khrushchev to issue his 'Berlin Ultimatum' in 1958
  • He demanded that US, British and French troops leave West Berlin within six months - West Berlin would become a free city
  • Eisenhower refused the ultimatum - Khrushchev took no further action, but the Berlin issue wasn't solved
• 6. What was the Soviet attitude towards Berlin?

  • The USSR felt threatened by the economic success in West Berlin
  • East Berlin had become dependent on trade links with West Berlin
  • The USSR worried the West was trying to use its strong economy to interfere in Eastern Europe
• 7. What was the Western Attitude towards Berlin?

  • After the Berlin Airlift, West Berlin became a symbol of democracy - it had to be supported or the West would lose credibility
  • People fleeing from East Berlin suited the West - it was good propaganda because it made communism look weak
• 8. What happened at the Camp David summit?

  • In 1959, Khrushchev became the first communist leader to visit the USA - the meeting symbolised a new spirit of co-operation and communication between the two powers
  • At the meeting they discussed Berlin - Eisenhower still didn't agree to withdraw from West Berlin, but did agree to discuss the matter more deeply
  • The leaders decided to meet in Paris the following year
  • Although no firm decisions were made, the arrangement of another summit promised to continue the optimistic dialogue they had started
• 9. Why was the Berlin Wall built?

  • In 1961, around 2000 Germans crossed over from East to West Berlin every day
  • When it became clear that he situation wasn't going to be solved diplomatically, Khrushchev constructed the Berlin Wall
• 10. What happened at the Paris summit?

  • President Eisenhower and Khrushchev had agreed to discuss the Berlin question at the Paris Summit in 1960
  • Days before the summit was due to take place, the USSR shot down a U2 American sky plane over Soviet territory
  • Eisenhower denied that it was a spy plane, but the USSR then produced the pilot (alive) and the plane's wreckage as evidence
  • When the USA refused to apologise, Khrushchev walked out of the Paris Summit
• 11. What happened at the Vienna summit?

  • The U2 incident hindered further negotiations about Berlin
  • Both countries met again at Vienna in June 1961 - by this time, John F. Kennedy had replaced Eisenhower as US president
  • Kennedy vowed to take a tougher approach towards communism - he refused to compromise over Berlin, and no resolution was reached
  • After the Vienna summit, the USSR believed that problems in Berlin wouldn't be solved by negotiation - this catalysed the decision of the Berlin Wall
• 12. The Berlin Wall:

  • Khrushchev felt he had to act to stem the flow of refugees out of Berlin
  • On 13th August 1961, a 27-mile barrier was built across the city overnight, separating East from West
  • It was fortified with barbed wire and machine gun posts and later strengthened, making it more permanent
  • Instead of being able to cross freely as before, workers could no longer go to work in East Berlin and friends and relatives were cut off
  • Citizens were rarely allowed through military checkpoints - anyone who tried to escape was shot
• 13. How did the Berlin Wall help stabilise the situation in Europe?

  • Immediately after the Berlin Wall appeared, Soviet and Western troops were positioned either side of the wall, but then both powers agreed to back down
  • The USA condemned the building of the wall, but took no military action
  • Kennedy was actually relieved - he'd been preparing for a confrontation of some sort
  • "It's not a very nice solution, but a wall is a hell of a lot better than a war" - President Kennedy, 1961
• 14. What else did the Berlin Wall lead to?

  • The wall succeeded in stopping mass emigration to West Berlin
  • It also gave East Germany the opportunity to rebuild its economy, and strengthen itself as a communist state
  • In the West, the Berlin Wall became a symbol of oppression and the failure of communism - in the USSR it was seen as a sign of strength
  • President Kennedy visited West Berlin in 1963 and gave a famous speech stating his solidarity with West Berlin and is people
  • He declared 'Ich bin ein Berliner' (I am a Berliner) or (I am a donut)
• 15. What happened in the Cuban Revolution of 1959?

  • Since 1952, Cuba had been ruled by Batista, a ruthless military dictator, who allowed American businessmen and the Mafia to take huge profits in a country where most people lived in poverty
  • In 1956, a rebel called Fidel Castro began a guerrilla war (small military units use tactics like aids to fight a larger opponent)
  • By 1959, he had enough support to take Cuba's capital, Havana and successfully overthrew the government
• 16. Why did the Cuban revolution panic the USA?

  • The USA had a long economic history with Cuba - it owned half of Cuba's land and held most of the shares in all Cuban industries - The USA had occupied Cuba from 1898 to 1902. When Cuba became independent, the two countries maintained close economic ties
  • The USA felt it had a right to be involved in Cuba's affairs - but Cubans had grown to resent American influence in their country - they didn't feel like an independent state
• 17. How did the USA accidentally push Castro closer to the USSR?

  • When Castro seized power in 1959, he nationalised US companies and increased taxes on goods imported from America - this angered the USA
  • Eisenhower was concerned that Castro's drive towards public ownership showed that he was moving towards communism
  • Eisenhower threatened to stop importing Cuban sugar - which was Cuba's main source of wealth - hoping he would back down
  • Instead, Castro signed a trade agreement with the USSR - the USSR promised to buy all sugar exports
• 18. How did the USA accidentally push Castro closer to the USSR 2?

  • In January 1961, the USA severed all diplomatic relations with Cuba - the new US President John Kennedy no longer recognised Castro's government
  • Khrushchev wanted to help Castro, who was sympathetic towards communism - he also saw an opportunity to gain influence near US soil
  • By 1961, Cuba had consolidated its ties with the USSR - as Cuba was only 90 miles away from the USA, the communist threat had come dangerously close
• 19. What was the Bay of Pigs invasion?

  • In 1961, Kennedy authorised an invasion of Cuba by anti-Castro rebels
  • In April 1961, the rebels landed in the Bay of Pigs, but they were easily defeated and the USA didn't help - it was a bit of a fiasco
  • The USA was humiliated, and had pushed Cuba even closer to the USSR
• 20. How did the Bay of Pigs lead to increased tensions?

  • The invasion led Castro to decide that Cuba needed Soviet military assistance to defend itself - this sparked one of the biggest crises of the Cold War - the Cuban Missile Crisis
  • In December 1961, Castro publicly announced that he was a communist, confirming US fears
• 21. The Cuban Missile Crisis Part 1

  • In September 1961, Cuba asked the USSR for weapons to defend itself against further American intervention
  • By 1962, Khrushchev had decided to put nuclear missiles in Cuba
  • Although Khrushchev already had missiles that could reach the USA, missiles in Cuba would allow him to launch a nuclear attack on all of central and eastern USA with very little warning
  • In October 1962, American U2 spy planes spotted that nuclear missile bases were being built in Cuba
• 22. The Cuban Missile crisis Part 2

  • President Kennedy demanded that Khrushchev dismantle the missile bases and ordered a naval blockade of Cuba - all Soviet ships were to be stopped and searched to prevent missiles being transported to the island
  • As tensions grew, US bombers were put in the air carrying nuclear bombs and the USA prepared to invade Cuba - the world was on the brink of nuclear war
  • On 27th October 1962, Khrushchev made a deal to dismantle the missile bases in Cuba and ordered his ships to turn around - in exchange the USA lifted the blockade, promised not to invade Cuba
• 23. What was a main cause of the USSR sending missiles to Cuba?

  • The USA had placed missiles in Turkey right next to the USSR in April 1962
  • In Khrushchev's eyes, putting missiles in Cuba was a reasonable response
  • During the deal on 27th October 1962, the USA secretly agreed to remove their missiles from Turkey
• 24. How did the Cuban Missile Crisis lead to detente?

  • The CMC was important because it forced everybody to face up to how quickly a tense situation could become an absolute catastrophe
  • In the short term, efforts were made to defuse tension and improve communications
  • The CMC was one of the most dangerous events in the Cold War, but it also marked the beginning of 'detente'
• 25. What were the consequences of the Cuban Missile Crisis?

  • In 1963, a telephone 'hotline' was established between Washington and Moscow - this enabled the two superpowers to talk directly and more quickly in the event of a crisis
  • Kennedy emerged from the crisis as a hero who had stood up against the threat of communism
  • Khrushchev, however, was discredited - he'd forced the USA to remove their missiles from Turkey, but had agreed to keep the deal a secret - in the eyes of the public he'd failed and he resigned in 1964
• 26. How were nuclear weapons bought under control in the long term?

  • The Limited Test Ban Treaty was signed by both powers in 1963 - it stated that all future tests of nuclear weapons had to be carried out underground to avoid polluting the air with nuclear radiation
  • The Outer Space Treaty was drawn up in 1967 - it forbade countries from placing weapons of mass destruction in space
  • The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty came into force in 1970 - both superpowers agreed not to supply nuclear weapons or related technology to countries that didn't already have nuclear arms
• 27. Why did people in Czechoslovakia resent USSR influence?

  • Tension had been building in Czechoslovakia - it had become a communist state in 1948 and its policies were heavily influenced by the USSR
  • It was a member of the Warsaw Pact, which discouraged trade with countries outside of the Eastern Bloc and promoted Soviet-style communism
  • Soviet policies such as collectivisation and centralisation slowed economic progress in Czechoslovakia
  • There was growing discontent about the extent of external control over Czechoslovakian affairs - in 1956 students and writers protested
• 28. Alexander Dubcek:

  • In January 1968, Alexander Dubcek became the leader of the Communist Party in Czechoslovakia - Dubcek wanted Czechoslovakia to follow its own version of communism
  • in April 1968, he introduced a series of reforms that went against Soviet-style communism
• 29. Dubcek's reforms:

  • Travel to the West was made available for all
  • The border with West Germany was re-opened
  • All industry became decentralised (companies were no longer controlled by Communist Party officials)
  • Trade unions and workers were given more power
  • Freedom of speech and opposition parties were allowed
• 30. The Prague Spring

  • Many of Dubcek's reforms were aimed at improving the performance of Czechoslovakia's economy - partly by developing closer relations with the West
  • This worried the USSR - it didn't want any Western relations in its Eastern Bloc
  • Even though some reforms moved away from Soviet policy, Dubcek was still a communist - he promised that Czechoslovakia would stay in the Warsaw pact and remain a loyal ally to Moscow
  • For four months, his new policies were tolerated by the USSR, Czechoslovakia enjoyed relative freedom - this period is known as 'Prague Spring'
• 31. Why was the USSR put under pressure to intervene?

  • The USSR grew increasingly concerned as Dubcek's new polices meant the USSR had less control over Czechoslovakia
  • The leader of the USSR, Leonid Brezhnev, was worried that his reforms could lead to a rejection of communism and the USSR in the Eastern Bloc - other satellite states might follow Dubcek
• 32. What event triggered the Soviet response (Prague Spring)

  • President Tito of Yugoslavia visited Prague - Yugoslavia had refused to sign the Warsaw Pact and had never accepted the USSR's version of communism
  • The trip was an ominous sign to Brezhnev that Czechoslovakia was no longer loyal to the USSR
  • The USSR received a letter from communists in Czechoslovakia, asking for help
• 33. Invasion of Czechoslovakia:

  • On 21st August 1968 500,000 Soviet troops invaded Czechoslovakia
  • The Czechoslovakians responded with non-violent demonstrations (they were keen to avoid violence that erupted in the Hungarian Uprising) - people took to the streets with anti-invasion banners , and in January 1969, a student burned himself alive in the street in protest
  • In April 1969, Dubcek was forcibly removed from office, and replaced with Gustav Husak - Husak was loyal to Soviet-style communism, and would ensure that Czechoslovakia remained close with the USSR
• 34. Countries responses to the invasion of Czechoslovakia:

  • There was an international outcry at the Soviet intervention in Czechoslovakia, but no action was taken
  • The UN denounced the invasion and proposed a draft resolution requesting the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Czechoslovakia
  • This was vetoed (ignored) by the USSR
  • Many western countries condemned the invasion but didn't want to interfere with the USSR's sphere of influence
  • Communist parties in the West criticised Brezhnev's reaction ad sought to distance themselves from Soviet influence
• 35. Why did countries not want to take action against the USSR for the invasion on Czechoslovakia?

  • Countries were wary of taking action against the USSR
  • The Prague Spring occurred at a time when the Cold War had thawed slightly
  • Nobody wanted to re-ignite tensions between the two superpowers
• 36. How did the Prague Spring strengthen the USSR?

  • The USSR succeeded in returning Czechoslovakia to Soviet-style communism
  • Brezhnev used the Prague Spring as an opportunity to establish his authority in the Eastern Bloc - he showed he was prepared to invade a friendly satellite state in order not to weaken the anti-Western alliance
  • He also proved to the USA that he was a strong and determined leader
• 37. What was the Brezhnev doctrine?

  • After the invasion, Brezhnev announced that in future the USSR would act to protect communism in any country where it was under threat
  • The Brezhnev Doctrine was important because it strengthened the USSR's control over its satellite states
  • It also sent a message to the Eastern Bloc that giving up communism wasn't an option - the USSR would respond with force
• 38. How did the Brezhnev Doctrine impact US-Soviet relations?

  • Soviet-American relations continued to be strained - despite recent moves towards reducing the nuclear threat, both countries still distrusted one another
  • The incident reminded both superpowers that the Cold War wasn't over - Brezhnev had proved he was still willing to risk conflict to uphold communism in the Eastern Bloc