Gender

• (A) Prokash et al - tested 100 married females in India on masc/fem and range of outcomes related to health: physical health, depression, anxiety and perceived stress. Masc/fem measured using personal attribute scale (2nd test of androgyny). Females with higher masculine scores had less depression whereas those with high feminine scores had more depression. TS androgyny has positive correlation with psychological health as Bem suggested, providing reliable support.
• (A) Peters and Cantrell - Used the BSRI to find that androgynous females had the best quality relationships. TS androgyny is a positive condition.
• (A) Cultural bias - Bem's theory suggests androgynous individual more psychologically healthy because able to deal with scenarios that demand masc/fem/androgynous response. However, can be criticised for being reflective of individuals in Western society. Supported by Adams and Shearer, argued individuals who display greater proportion of masculine traits better adjusted as more highly valued in Western society. TS - Bem's theory of androgyny can be argued culturally biased as fails to consider cultural context when individual gender identity has been developed implying universality of theory.
• (A) Subjectivity bias - BSRI rating scale is a self report method. These types of methods assume degree of self understanding people may not have. Answers may be determined by response bias and also social desirability bias. TS - validity of BSRI as measure of androgyny can be questioned because of subjectivity and bias that arise from use of such questionnaires. Bringing into question the use of this methodology as a measure of androgyny when looking into gender.
• (SRS) Eccles et al - reported children encouraged by parents to play with gender-typical toys, supports idea of reinforcing sex role stereotypes. Further supported by Lytton and Romney who praised sex-role stereotypical behaviour in boys and girls, such as what activities they participate in. TS reliable explanation to support SRS when understanding gender in society
• (SRS) Sood et al - reported only 12% of primary school teachers and 3% of nursery teachers are male, due to early teaching deemed to be stereotypically feminine - nurturing vs males who are seen as intimidating and threatening. TS impact of sex-role stereotypes in adult careers.
• (SRS) Debate that can be applied is NvN. Takes empiricist stance as argues children socialised by environment to understand gender stereotypical behaviour, forming their gender identity. Supported by Eccles et al. TD - the importance of nurture side of continuum when understanding the development of sex roles in society.
• (SRS) PA - evidence suggests SRS learned through environmental explanations, implying negative stereotypes could be addressed by learning experiences for children focusing on positive sex roles. Demonstrates how techniques can be developed and used to overcome negative stereotypes, potentially creating further equality within society from an early age. Which, in turn, could diminish many discrimination issues in society. TS - the theory and research into SRS is beneficial to society in potentially helping to create more equality to genders.
• (C&H) Money and Ehrhardt - reported on sample of girls whose mothers took drugs containing testosterone during pregnancy. Girls exhibited male- type behaviour, participating in energetic sports, showed absence of female-type behaviour, like playing with dolls. TS - testosterone has strong influence on gender behaviour.
• (C&H) Deady et al - Found that increased testosterone levels in women aged 25-30 negatively correlated with decreased measures of maternal personality and reproductive ambition. TS maternal drive affected by testosterone.
• (C&H) Reductionism - the role of hormones and chromosomes takes a biological stance when used to explain development. Could be limited due to lower levels of explanation and reduce complexity down into smaller components, ignoring higher levels of explanation. Alternative factors need to be considered such as cognitive. This has been supported by THOMSON who found that children could identify same-sex pictures, suggesting children can self-identity and label pictures of others. Best approach to adopt would be a holistic one.
• (C&H) Animal research - Much of the research involved in hormonal research comes from animals. This is a problem because animals are physiologically and cognitively different to humans and it could also be deemed unethical due to the inability for animals to give consent. QUADANGO ET AL found that female monkeys exposed to testosterone during pre-natal development were more aggressive and engaged in more rough and tumble play. HE, despite animal research, the findings are also consistent amongst human research. TS role of T highly deemed R.
• (atypical) Simpson et al - found that behavioural and language difficulties resulting from having Kleinfelter's syndrome could be successfully treated with androgen therapy, such as testosterone supplements and psychological counselling. Supporting some detrimental effects of KS can be counteracted.
• (atypical) Brown et al – reported from MRI that girls with Turner's syndrome had smaller posterior cerebral and cerebellar brain area. TS that could implicate brain can affect behaviour.
• (atypical) NvN - explanation takes nature stance as argues conditions such as TS and KS develop from chromosomes and genes inherited from parents and the problems that follow. Supported by Brown et al. Demonstrating how explanation adopts nativist stance on continuum
• (atypical) Socially sensitive - TIAPB both conditions diagnosed prenatally based on cytogenetic analysis of foetus which could increase terminations. Genetic explanation of the atypical patterns could also mean parents are blamed. TS careful consideration is needed.
• (Kohlberg) Slaby and Frey gave questionnaires to 2-5 year olds to assess level of gender constancy, then several weeks later showed film of man and woman performing gender stereotypical activities. 'Were you a little boy when you were a baby?' Found children with high levels of gender constancy paid more attention to same sex models than those with low gender constancy, suggests that high gender constancy children watch own gender to acquire info about gender appropriate behaviour. Supporting Kohlberg's theory that gender development is an active process
• (Kohlberg) Thomson - Found that 2-year-old children given pictures of boys and girls could select same-sex ones, demonstrating that children could self-label and identify the gender of others. By three years old 90% showed gender identity, compared with only 76% of two-year-olds. TS developmental nature of jealousy suggested by Kohlberg providing R.
• (Kohlberg) Holistic - theory concluded on cognitive factors but fails to consider cultural and social factors, such as influence of parents and friends. Despite this limitation, can be deemed as more holistic approach rather than reductionist as combines elements of alternate approaches. For example, stages influenced by changes in child's brain development and subsequent cognitive and intellectual maturations. This has been supported by Munroe et al who found cultural evidence of Kohlberg’s stages in countries such as Kenya, Samoa and Nepal showing cultural similarities.
• (Kohlberg) A problem with Kohlberg’s explanation is that there has been the suggestion that boys tend to have a more rigid understanding of gender than girls. This has been supported by SLABY AND FREY who found that boys tended to exhibit gender constancy before girls. TS theory can be argued as being beta biased due to underestimating the differences between boys and girls.
• (GST) Campbell - tested infants between the ages of 3-18 months, finding that even the youngest ones had a preference for watching same-sex babies, showing from early age pay attention to same sex group, supporting GST.
• (GST) Martin and Little - found children under 4 showed no signs of gender stability let alone signs of constancy, but did display strong gender stereotypes about what boys/girls permitted to do. Therefore showing they had acquired information about gender roles before Kohlberg suggested, supporting GST.
• (GST) limited - sole focus on role of schema when it comes to explaining gender development. Theory fails to acknowledge importance of all social factors such as parental info and direct reinforcement, resulting in the theory only explaining why gender schemas form and failing to state why they take the form they do on all levels. TS - limited and oversimplified process of gender development, suggesting alternative explanation may be more appropriate that adopts holistic viewpoint.
• (GST) It can be argued that GST can complement Kohlberg’s theory. This has been supported by Stangor and Ruble who suggested that gender schemas and gender constancy are 2 different processes, with schemas being about storing of information and constancy being about motivation. Therefore, suggesting that to fully understand gender development from a cognitive perspective, both theories combined would provide a much more thorough understanding of how gender development occurs, in comparison to a singular approach.
• (Psychodynamic) Snortum et al - reported 46m from military service for being homosexual has more close bonding and controlling mothers and rejected detached fathers, than comparable sample of heterosexual men. Supporting idea males who fail to resolve Oedipus complex by identifying with fathers can become homosexual.
• (Psychodynamic) Friedman - found when story began with child doing something nice with opposite sex parent and then joined by same-sex parent, children produced sadder end to story than when a story began with a child doing something with same sex parent then joined by opposite. Supporting idea of both complexes of children having more attraction to opposite sex parents and hostility to same sex parents
• (Psychodynamic) FvD - hard deterministic stance, particularly psychic determinism. This can be seen as explanation suggests unconscious drives of complexes and their resolution are the cause of gender. Freud believed FW was an illusion and believed identification and internalisation lead to gender identity. Supported by Snortum et al, demonstrating how this approach takes psychic deterministic stance. However can be argued socially sensitive as covers sensitive topics (homosexuality, gender identity), careful consideration needed.
• (Psychodynamic) criticised for concepts. In particular, Electra complex being reflection of time period and area he lived/worked in, where males at time seen to hold all power, demonstrating androcentrism. However, contradicted by Horney who argued men's womb envy more prominent than penis envy. TS - Freud's theory can be deemed as limited due to research challenging idea female development founded on desire to want to be a man. Highlighting difficulties with theory when using Freud's proposals to explain gender development
• (SLT) Perry and Bussey - When shown clips of boys and girls presented with an apple and a pear, 8–9 year-olds picked the same fruit that their gender-appropriate model picked. TS children imitate such behaviours increasing reliability of SLT.
• (SLT) Martin at el - pre-school boys played with toys labelled ‘boys’ toys’ even when they observed girls playing with them yet did not play with toys labelled ‘girls toys’ even when they observed boys playing with them. TS direct instruction is just as important as modelling highlighting importance of SL concepts.
• (SLT) NvN - supports nurture side but can be criticised for lack of acknowledgment of nature and biological factors. Supported through case of David Reimer, born biological male, reared as female but resume male identity. Research demonstrates how it is not possible to avoid biological influence, highlighting importance of nature over nurture. TS - SLT limited as only provides partial explanation of process of gender development and interactionist approach needed to full understand gender development.
• (SLT) simplistic - SLT of gender development could be argued to be simplistic. Although there is recognition of intellectual and physical age limitations on gender-related behaviour, but emphasis that modelling of any behaviour can happen at any age. TIAPB DUBLIN found that despite a child observing the behaviours of same-sex role models at an early age, the selection and imitation of such behaviours happens later in life.
• (bio GID) Hare et al - examined gene samples from male gender dysphorics and non dysphorics. Correlation found between gender dysphoria and variants of androgen receptor gene. Supporting genetic explanation in suggesting fault in gene responsible for masculinising brain during development in womb, responsible for GID.
• (Bio GID) Garcia-falgueras and Swaab - compared post mortem data from 12 deceased individuals who underwent gender reassignment surgery with 25 controls. Found hypothalamic nucleus brain area similar in male-to-female gender reassigned ppts to female controls. Supporting GID having biological origin, with such structural differences occurring due to abnormal hormonal activity during masculinisation and feminisation of brain.
• (bio GID) NvN - nature stance, origins of GID due to biological factors - genetics, hormonal differences and differences in brain structure, specifically BSTc. Supported by Hare et al. Demonstrating how biological explanation adopt nature side of continuum. However research indicates social factors also implicate. Staller proposed GID occurs due to distorted parental attitudes, extreme stress during adult life disturbs al aspects of identity. TS - interactionist approach more appropriate, such as DSM, highlighting not one side of the debate can be used to explain disorder
• (social GID) Staller - proposed GID occurs due to distorted parental attitudes, claimed extreme stresses during adult life majorly disturbs all aspects of person's identity. In a number of cases when this happens, individual's gender identity also disturbed. Staller observed individuals suffering from GID displayed overly close mother-son relationship which led to confused gender identity and high female identification.
• (Social GID) Oversey and Pearson - suggested extreme separation anxiety in early life before established sexual identity can lead to transsexualism. When individual experiences this, anxiety alleviates by fantasies of mother and child becoming one. In transsexual's mind, become mother and by sustaining this identity will switch core identity to female.