Antarctica Extras

• Whaling Moratorium


  • Banned all commercial whaling around the world, including in Antarctica
  • Helped whale populations in Antarctica to increase
• Monitoring the success of the Whaling Moratorium


  1. Estimating whale populations based on sightings

  2. Modelling
• Countries that believe there should be a better monitoring system for the Whaling Moratorium


  • US
  • Australia
• Proposed improvements to the monitoring system

  • Registering all whaling boats with the IWC
  • Placing independent observers on all whaling boats
• Countries that say the IWC does not have the authority to implement the proposed monitoring system

  • Japan
  • Norway
• NGOs, including Greenpeace, have said that the Whaling Moratorium is also poorly enforced
• Countries like Japan have continued to kill large numbers of Antarctic whales for 'scientific research' despite the Whaling Moratorium
• Role of NGOs


  • Play an important role in monitoring possible threats to Antarctica and protecting its environment
  • Well positioned to observe whether countries are sticking to the laws governing Antarctica and to call international attention to those who aren't
• ASOC


  Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition, an NGO formed in 1978 to campaign against plans to make it legal to search for oil, gas and minerals in Antarctica
• ASOC successfully campaigned to make Antarctic Treaty meetings more transparent, including allowing NGOs to attend
• ASOC


  • Interested in protecting the environment, does not have an interest in trying to exploit Antarctica for resources or fishing
  • Monitors environmental changes in Antarctica and checks whether countries are sticking to the rules
  • Monitors the effects that climate change is having on Antarctica, e.g. by checking melting ice and sea levels
  • Campaigns with other NGOs to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
• Monitoring of melting ice in Antarctica has informed efforts to combat climate change
• Global governance of Antarctica has an impact on people and places in Antarctica and around the world
• They and recove Tourism a these may alter food webs and ecosystems
• Antarctica is also important for scientific and environmental research. This requires lots of facilities, including bases for the researchers to live, roads to transport supplies and places to store fuel. Until the 1980s a lot of the waste created in these bases was either burned, thrown into the sea or dumped
• Antarctic Treaty (1959)


  Agreement about how to sustainably manage Antarctica's ecosystems. Signed by 53 countries
• Rules laid out in the Antarctic Treaty

  • Antarctica should only be used for peaceful reasons- no army bases or weapons are allowed
  • Countries should cooperate on scientific research in Antarctica by sharing plans, researchers and results
  • Antarctica should remain in the global commons- individual countries cannot make a claim to it
• Under the 1959 treaty, all bases and equipment in Antarctica can be inspected at any time, with different countries taking responsibility for carrying out inspections. However, inspections don't occur very often
• Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (1991)

  Focuses on protecting Antarctica's fragile environment
• Key rules in the 1991 protocol

  • Banned all mining in Antarctica
  • Set rules to help protect Antarctic plants and animals, regulate waste disposal and prevent pollution
  • Requires an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) for any new activities
• There is no system to ensure all countries abide by the rules. If there are disputes between countries then they are encouraged to negotiate. Otherwise, disputes can be taken to the International Court of Justice
• The countries involved must reach a consensus over all decisions regarding Antarctica. Tackling problems can therefore be slow and difficult-e.g. between 2012 and 2016, plans for Antarctic marine reserves repeatedly failed because of opposition from Russia and Ukraine
• United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)

  UN agency that is the main institution governing the world's environment. Responsible for reporting activity in Antarctica to the UN
• Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR)


  Aims to stop illegal fishing and conserve the Antarctic ecosystem, e.g. by setting up protected areas. However, its effectiveness is limited by individual countries protecting their own interests
• In 1994 the International Whaling Commission (IWC) set up a whale sanctuary in the Southern Ocean around Antarctica in order to protect whales. However, campaigners have criticised the IWC for not properly monitoring the number of whales in the sanctuary