childhood

• what is childhood?


  social construct

  
  

  social construct = something created by society, constructed from social meanings and definitions

  
  

  evidence of social construct of childhood:

  1) differing status, responsibilities and treatment of children in different contemporary cultures

  2) the view of the nature of childhood and status/treatment has changed throughout history

  3) differences between children's status and responsibilities even in same society
• western notion of childhood - PILCHER


  most important feature of modern idea of childhood = separateness. distinct life stage
• childhood as a distinct life stage

  - laws regulate what children can do

  - differences in dress

  - products and services

  - childhood seen as 'golden age'

  - children = vulnerable and need protection

  - no paid work

  - sphere of education and family
• historical differences in childhood

  aries (1960) - investigated historical differences in childhood using middle age paintings as his source

  
  

  middle ages: idea of childhood did not exist

  - children not seen as having different nature once past infancy

  - entered society early as economic assets

  - 'mini-adults' with same rights, duties and skills. no distinction in law, faced same punishments

  - just 'depicted on a smaller scale', no difference in dress or roles

  
  

  shorter (1975): high death rates => indifference + neglect to kids, espec infants. newborns given same name of recently dead siblings or 'it', parents forget how many kids they have
• aries: modern cult of childhood

  elements of modern childhood emerged from 13th century onwards:

  - schools specialised for young, distinctions between clothing by 17th century, handbooks on childrearing by 18th century

  - 20th century = century of the child. we are now obsessed with childhood
• criticisms of aries


  POLLOCK - society just had a different notion of childhood

  
  

  aries underestimates differences between adults and children in medieval europe e.g. laws existed prohibiting under 12s from marrying
• march of progress view


  childhood has improved drastically, best it has ever been in west. children today = more valued, better cared for and educate, have more rights and healthcare benefits etc
• child centredness


  child centred society = things revolves around children, wishes and desires of children often put above adult's own choices

  - higher living standard, smaller families

  
  

  estimated a child will have cost their parents over £227,000 by the time they become 21
• causes of child centredness

  smaller families: more individual care/attention to each child

  
  

  shorter working week

  - 19th century: working week typically 70-80hrs for wc people, now around 43hrs incl overtime so more time to spend with kid

  
  

  children's consumer market

  - businesses e.g. mothercare, toysrus, music industry etc encourage children to consume and parents to spend to satisfy their demands

  - margo: children are taking more control over family spending, 7-11 becoming more lucrative target audience due to 'pester power' so parents buy things

  - also links to higher affluence of families

  
  

  schooling

  - compulsory schooling introduced 1880

  - 2015 education and skills act, stay in educ until 18

  - from age 5, children are educated, learn from peers = more knowledgeable + assertive dealing with parents

  
  

  emphasis on parenting skills: donzelot (1977) observes how theories of child development appear from 19th century, stressed how children need supervision/protection

  
  

  growing parental fears for child safety

  - 'stranger danger' and increased traffic dangers mean children travel more with parents instead of alone like past

  - rise of social media
• conflict view


  childhood has worsened
• inequalities between children: gender differences


  HILLMAN - boys more likely to be allowed to cross or cycle on roads, use buses and go out after dark unaccompanied

  
  

  BONKE - girls do more domestic labour, espec in lone parent families where they do 5x more than boys
• inequalities between children: class differences


  27% of children in the uk 2012-13 living in officially defined poverty

  
  

  margo et al (2006): richer parents can afford to purchase activities which poorer parents can't afford e.g. dance/music lessons. also more likely to attend constructive, organised or educational activities that enhance their children's social/personal development

  poorer children = more likely to spend time with friends or watching tv, less beneficial to development

  
  

  some children forced to take jobs asap e.g. paper rounds or working in shops to supplement any pocket money they may/may not get, + support family income

  
  

  poorer children = more likely to suffer more ill-health and disability, and to gain fewer educational qualifications than those who are well off
• inequalities between children: ethnic differences


  brannen (1994 + 96) and bhatti (1999): asian girls are controlled more strictly than their brothers, more restricted chilhood

  - idea of 'izzat' (family honour) could restrict behaviour of girls
• inequalities between children: siblings


  womack (2010): 31% had been kicked/punched a lot by siblings, 30% bullied, 8% scarred or badly hurt by sibling

  
  

  bowes et al (2014): those with siblings are 2x as likely to experience anxiety, depression or self harm
• what are the inequalities between adults and children?

  - space

  - time

  - bodies

  - resources

  - abuse
• inequalities between adults and children: space


  cunningham (2007): the home habitat of 8 year olds (area they are able to travel alone) has shrunk to 1/9 of the size it was 25 years ago

  - 1971: 86% of primary school children allowed to travel home from school alone. 2010: only 25%

  - fears of road safety and 'stranger danger' = more children driven to school rather than travelling independently

  
  

  increased surveillance over children in public spaces e.g. shopping centres, espec at times they should be in school

  - children's movements highly regulated in industrial societies

  e.g. being told to play in some areas and forbidden to play in others

  e.g. 'no schoolchildren' signs in shops

  
  

  contrast to independence of children in developing countries:

  katz (2004): rural sudanese children roam freely in village and for several km outside of it
• inequalities between adults and children: time


  adults in modern society control children's daily routines e.g. when they get up, eat, go to school, come home, go out, play, watch tv and sleep

  
  

  also define whether a child is too old/young for activities, responsibilities and behaviours (e.g. park)

  - controlling speed at which children 'grow up'

  
  

  contrasts holmes' findings in samoa
• inequalities between adults and children: bodies

  e.g. how they sit, walk/run, what they wear (makeup, sunhats, glasses etc), hairstyles, consent to piercing etc

  
  

  taken for granted that children's bodies may be touched (in certain ways by certain adults)

  - washed, dressed, have hands held, picked up, cuddled/kissed and may be disciplined by smacking

  
  

  adults restrict how children may touch their own bodies e.g. being told not to pick their nose, suck their thumb or play with their genitals

  - contrasts sexual freedom of some children e.g. trobriand islands, non-industrial culture
• inequalities between adults and children: resources

  in industrial societies, children only have limited opportunities to earn money so are financially dependent on adults

  - labour laws + compulsory schooling excludes them from all but most marginal, low-paid, part-time employment

  - state paid child benefits go to parents, not child

  - pocket money given by parents may depend on 'good behaviour' and there may be restrictions on how it can be spent

  
  

  contrasts katz: sudanese children engaged in productive work from age of 4
• inequalities between adults and children: abuse


  extreme form of adult control: physical neglect or physical, sexual or emotional abuse

  - 2013: 43,000 children subject to child protection plans as they were deemed to be at risk of significant harm (most often from their own parents)

  - childline receives over 20,000 calls per year from children saying they've been physically or sexually abused

  - dark side of the family: children are victims
• child liberationist views


  child liberationists argue that childhood is a degrading experience for millions of children

  - conflict sociologists argue there is hidden, dark side

  
  

  e.g. sexual exploitation of children in rotherham 2012 - perceived girls as adults, didn't want to appear racist. sexual term-0abuse from gangs for 16 years

  
  

  firestone (1979): adults us their power over children to oppress and control them
• disappearing childhood


  postman (1994): childhood is disappearing at a 'dazzling speed'

  - breakdown of barriers between adults and children

  
  

  open access to media exposes children/young people to the adult world

  - increased rights for children

  - decreased parental authority

  - children committing adult crimes e.g. james bugler murdered by two 10 year old boys in 1993

  - blurring lines between adult and child's clothing

  
  

  fall of childhood is due to the decline in print culture and rise in television culture

  1) middle ages

  - most people = illiterate, speech only skill needed to participate in adult world so children able to enter from early age

  2) from 19th century

  - mass literacy, childhood emerges with separate status to adulthood, printed world creates information hierarchy where adults withhold info from children about unsuitable topics e.g. sex, violence, death etc

  3) late 20th century

  - tv, internet, computers etc destroy information hierarchy by enabling children to access unsuitable info, so enter adult world earlier and lose childhood

  - e.g. access to pop culture (films, music etc) leads children to imitate adult behaviour

  
  

  sexualisation of childhood

  - companies market adult clothes at children

  - proliferation of sex tips for teenagers in youth magazines, health and beauty spas for young girls = exposure to adult concerns

  - margot (2006): over past 50yrs, avg age of sex fell from 20 for men and 21 for women in the 1950s to 16 for both in mid 90s

  
  

  evidence of disappearing childhood

  - underage sex, drinking and smoking

  - teen pregnancies

  - clothing

  - traditional games disappearing

  - violent console games, films and music
• evaluation of postman


  opie (1993): childhood isn't disappearing, there is strong evidence of the continued existence of a separate children's culture

  - lifetime study on children's rhymes and song shows that children can and do create their own independent culture separate from that of adults

  - e.g. separate TV shows/channels, songs and games
• toxic childhood


  sue palmer (2006)

  - children are being deprived of traditional childhood and family life. 21st century life is damaging children

  
  

  argues rapid technological and cultural change in the past 25 years has damaged children's physical, emotional and intellectual development

  this is caused by:

  - unhealthy junk food

  - lack of play in natural surroundings (more computer games)

  - poor sleep patterns

  - little time to interact within family (parents work long hours)

  - increased emphasis on testing in education

  - intensive marketing to children

  - decline in emotional security

  
  

  examples of toxic childhood:

  - decline of outdoor play

  - pace of modern life

  - commercialisation of childhood

  - 'schoolification' of childhood (exams and pressure, less fun)

  - screen saturation and child development

  
  

  signs of toxic childhood:

  - increase in ADHD and mental health issues

  - increase in substance abuse and self harm

  - obesity and diet

  - teen pregnancy

  - happiness levels

  
  

  EVAL:
• evidence of toxic childhood


  margo and dixon (2006): uk youth are at/near the top of international league tables for obesity, self harm, alcohol and drug abuse, violence, early sexual experience and teen pregnancies

  
  

  > good childhood report 2015: 7% of 12yr olds in england had 'low satisfaction'

  > unicef survey 2013 ranked uk 16th out of 29 for children's wellbeing

  > children's society report: more than 1/3 of english children said they had been bullied and half has felt excluded
• the new sociology of childhood


  children are active agents that have a major role in creating their own childhood

  
  

  smart: need to include children in the study of childhood

  - use qualitative research methods (unstructured interviews) so children can express their views

  
  

  focuses on how children have less power than adults. approach favoured by child liberationists
• cultural differences in childhood - BENEDICT AND PUNCH

  BENEDICT: children in non-industrial societies treated differently than western counterparts. shows childhood is socially constructed/not a natural state

  bolivia - PUNCH, taking responsibility at young age

  once children around 5, expected to take work responsibilities in home and community

  tasks taken without complaint, question or hesitation
• cultural differences in childhood - HOLMES AND FIRTH

  samoa - HOLMES

  samoan village: 'too young' never given as reason for not permitting child to undertake particular task

  if child thinks they can handle the activity, parents don't object

  tikopia - FIRTH, less value placed on showing obedience to adult authority

  doing as you're told by an adult = regarded as concession to be granted by child, not right to be expected by adult

  • more respectful, equal relationship