content

• current spatial pattens in international migrant flows

  lack of uniformity among countries in migration figures creates a difficulty in obtaining accurate, reliable and comparable statistics

  UN defines long term migrant as = person who moves to a country other than their usual residence for a period of 1 year +

  UN defines short term migrant as = person who moves for at least 3 months but less than a year
• net migration


  difference between numbers of immigrants and emigrants

  2018 = UK had net migration gain of 283,000
• main reasons for people emigrating from the UK in 2020

  employment opportunities

  • majority of migrants were of working age

  retirement

  • large number at retirement age
  • high UK house prices enable many to sell houses and live more cheaply abroad in a warm climate and good QOL

  family reunification

  • moving to join relatives overseas
• inter-regional migrant flows


  thousands of people have fled conflict and instability in africa and the middle east to european territory

  one migration route is central Mediterranean from Libyan ports to Italy's most southern point - tunisia replaced libya as main country of departure, departues from libya fell by 87%

  west african routes to spain via north african territories of Ceuta and the Canary Islands
• lee migration model


  acknowledges factors influencing emigration and immigration

  migration caused by

  1. push factors -- negative factors in migrants current location
  2. pull factors -- perceived advantages of a potential destination attracting migrants

  model incorporates idea of intervening obstacles which may occur at any point from origin to destination and include:

  • costs
  • physical features such as oceans
  • climatic features
  • health
  • transport
  • cultural factors such as language
• intra-regional migrant flows


  international migration with the EU is complex as in any one year there is significant movement between EU member states but also between non-EU countries and the EU

  2012 - 1.7 million people resident in an EU country migrated to another EU country, a further 1.7 million moved to the EU from non-EU countries, 2.7 million people migrated from the EU to a non-EU state
• EU expansion and migrant flows

  increased overall potential number of migrants

  Czech Republic, Estonia, Latvia, Malta, Poland, Cyprus, Hungary, Slovakia and Slovenia joined EU in 2004

  Romania and Bulgaria joined EU in 2007

  Croatia joined EU in 2013

  majority of these countries have relatively high proportion of working age groups seeking employment, who are also attracted by higher wages elsewhere within the EU

  overriding motivation for migration = economic
• key inter-regional migration flow - EU and Poland

  polish accession to EU in 2004 stimulated new wave of immigration from poland to the uk

  polish migrants attracted by greater employment opportunities, higher wages, better living standards and ease of return

  2013 - approx 660,000 poles living in the UK

  2013 - approx 40,000 uk migrants living in poland

  • many business professionals - business market in poland was attractive and open to innovation and inward investment
  • lower cost of living than UK
• relationship between patterns of international migration and socio economic development

  migration can contribute significantly to development = positive process for economic growth, stability and socio-economic change

  inequalities in levels of development can be cause of migration, and influences direction and scale of global migrant flows
• statistical measure of international migration linked to development

  migrant remittances

  • private funds sent by migrants to usually non-migrant members of their family
  • financial framework for international transfers being strengthened and so figures are increasingly accurate, but figures are much higher in reality
  • migrant remittances to more advanced countries are a lower % of GDP
  • remittances to LIDCs and EDCs they represent a high % of GDP and so are significant for their economy and development
• how global migration can promote stability, growth and development within and between countries through flows of MONEY

  monetary transfers more evident in billions of dollars sent worldwide as migrant remittances

  flows of money have been made easier, more efficient and more secure by the use of technology
• how global migration can promote stability, growth and development within and between countries through flows of IDEAS


  migration leads to geographical diffusion of ideas, information and values which can be transmitted back to place of origin

  includes ideas on family size, education and marriage = SOCIAL REMITTANCES

  information on migration reception and progress at the destination can be useful for prospective migrants

  values such as democracy and other norms of behaviour can flow from one country to another via social media or return of migrants
• how global migration can promote stability, growth and development within and between countries through flows of TECHNOLOGY


  used by international humanitarian organisations to asses crises so that response can be where needs are greatest

  human mobility analysis conducted through use of mobile phone records and credit card transactions. used in addition to other data are used in 'crisis mapping'
• how global migration can promote stability

  migrant remittances are source of foreign exchange which can contribute to economic stability of recipient country

  returning migrants, having acquired new ideas and values including democracy and equality, can contribute to peacebuilding and conflict resolution

  where there is a ageing population, youthful migrant working populations contribute to a more balanced age structure and population growth
• how global migration can promote economic growth

  GDP and tax base of host nation can be boosted by working migrants

  migrants as consumers themselves can stimulate local economies in a host country, even opening up new markets in demand for food, clothing, music etc

  migrants can fill skills gaps and shortages in the labour market of a host country at local and national scales

  migrant remittances can supplement household income, stimulate consumption, provide funds for local investment and stimulate local multiplier effects in the country of origin
• how global migration can promote development

  skills and knowledge acquired by returning migrants can be of benefit to countries of origin

  migrants can create networks which ease flows of skills, financial resources, values and ideas through links to diaspora associations, including professional, business, social and religious networks

  UN migration and development projects between partner countries are involving families, local authorities, and public and private service providers in effective bottom up approaches to development
• how global migration can cause inequalities

  countries of origin lose proportion of young and fittest element of labour force - may contribute to downward economic spiral at local, regional and national scales

  often better educated migrate, representing 'brain drain' and loss of human resources in country of origin

  demographic selectiveness of international migration causes redistribution of population of reproductive age - influences birth rates in countries of origin and destination

  migrant remittances can increase inequalities between families who receive them and those who dont
• how global migration can cause conflict

  social conflict can develop between host communities and newcomers - people of particular culture /ethnic origin may find difficulty integrating because of language etc

  immigrant populations can place pressure on service provision such as education, health and housing in host country, especially if concentrated in one area

  international borders can be areas of conflict for border control authorities, traffickers and illegal migrants
• how global migration can cause injustices

  migrants vulnerable to violation of human rights as result of forced labour, exploitation of women and children, and human trafficking

  treatment of asylum seekers can include being held in detention centres, not being allowed to work, and being supported by little financial resources for duration of application

  plight of refugees in terms of shelter, food, water, medicine etc includes possibility of return to origin country where risks are high
• areas of potential conflict and injustice caused by global migration exemplified by:

  reported HR violations in detention camps for Myanmar refugees and the Thai-Malaysian border

  new fence and high-tech surveillance at Bulgaria-Turkey border

  refugee camp and Channel tunnel at Calais - another migrant camp outside Calais contained over 3000 migrants in Feb 2016 - mostly unaccompanied young males
• how global migration causes inequalities, conflicts and injustices for people and places through UNEQUAL flows of PEOPLE


  migrant flows spatially uneven

  globally South-North and South-South migrant corridors are dominant

  transfers of ideas and money are closely related to inequalities in patterns of migration

  e.g., talent-based immigration policies of countries such as Canada encourage flows of highly skilled migrants from LIDCs and EDCs, giving rise to consequent contra-flow of social and financial remittances
• how global migration causes inequalities, conflicts and injustices for people and places through UNEQUAL flows of TECHNOLOGY

  access to technology in some countries is limited and reflects low levels of socio-economic development and infrastructure for ICT

  e.g., many low-middle income countries lack skilled human resources and computer forensic tools to analyse digital data or download / use maps / satellite imagery
• how global migration causes inequalities, conflicts and injustices for people and places through UNEQUAL flows of TECHNOLOGY



  government or military control of information and limited broadband speed affects work of civilian relief organisations, restricting effective management of conflict / injustices linked to migration
• why has migration become increasingly complex - economic globalisation


  as countries and economies become more interdependent there is an emergence of new source areas and host destinations
• contemporary INTER REGIONAL migration patterns reflecting recent global economic changes

  migration of highly skilled workers from China, India and Brazil to the US - including graduates (especially in STEM), and those in professional and business services attracted by high salaries and QOL

  migration of workers from India, Bangladesh, Pakistan etc to oil-producing Gulf states and Saudi Arabia - attracted by increased demand for labour, relatively high wages, ease of returning formal remittances etc
• contemporary INTRA REGIONAL migration patterns reflecting recent global economic changes

  rapid increase of international migrant stock among ASEAN member states. most migrants are low skilled, undocumented, seeking employment and higher wages through cyclical migration to countries of higher development

  return migration is high % of migrant flows within EU, including young workers having achieved pre-planned economic goals and then returning to more prestigious positions
• contemporary INTER REGIONAL migration patterns reflecting recent global economic changes

  increased migrant streams within south america, especially to ' southern cone ' of argentina, chile, paraguay and uruguay. main drives are disparities in wages and labour opportunities. regional integration (mercosur) has also eased immigration through free movement of labour
• contemporary INTERNAL migration patterns reflecting recent global economic changes

  internal migrant flows within EDCs such as India and China, driven by FDI which has created agglomerations of economic activity near large urban centres
• why has migration become increasingly complex

  economic globalisation = new host and source destinations

  high concentration of young workers and female migrants

  flows in South - South corridors equal in magnitude to those in South - North corridors

  conflict and persecution have increased numbers of refugees
• migration increasingly complex - young workers


  main drivers are economic - greater employment opportunities, higher wages and possibilities of remittances

  demand for workers in oil producing countries in the Middle East such as UAE and Qatar is example if young labour driven migration

  numbers of foreign born residents in UAE have increased from 2.5 million in 2000 to 8.5 million in 2019

  majority are low skilled and have little education, with many not educated beyond primary level
• migration increasingly complex - female migrants

  global increase in number of women and girl migrants in 21st century

  2019 = 51% of migrants in developed countries were female

  regionally, in Europe, Latin America and the Caribbean, North America and Oceania, female participation in international migration exceeded that of men

  reasons for differences centre of regulations governing admission and departure of migrants - many linked to status of women in country

  greater independence, status, freedom and increasing importance as main income earners = growth of this migrant stock
• migration increasingly complex - female migrants

  trend of growing significance is migration of highly skilled women

  in first decade of 21st century, tertiary educated women in OCED countries increased by 80%

  during this time, emigration of female graduates and other highly skilled women was higher than men for Africa, Latin America, India and China

  main destinations include Canada, USA and UK where there is less discrimination in labour market and where womens rights are better in general
• migration increasingly complex - female migrants vulnerability

  vulnerable to discrimination, violence and exploitation

  inequalities faced by women in status and opportunity make them particularly vulnerable if fleeing conflict or being transported by traffickers, lured by false promises of better jobs and way of life
• flows in south-south corridors equal south-north corridors

  2013 - south to south OUTNUMBERED all other migrant flows at 36% of global migrant stock, where south-north equalled 35%

  explained via labour migration - 2/3rds of migrant remittances were sent between countries in the south in 2013

  another factors is increase in refugees fleeing persecution and conflict - 2.3 million fleeing afghanistan to pakistan
• main reasons for magnitude of south to south flows

  restrictive administrative barriers for migrants from the south attempting to enter the north = redirect migration to another south country

  number of fast growing economies in the South which offer employment opportunities and are increasingly accessible

  increased awareness of opportunities in the South resulting from improved communications and developing social/business networks

  preventative costs of moving to more distant richer countries
• 2 key south to south migrant corridors

  burkina faso to ivory coast

  myanmar to thailand
• increasing complexity of migration - conflict and persecution have increased numbers of refugees


  refugee = someone who has moved outside the country of their nationality due to fear of persecution or death

  UNHCR - refugee numbers increased from 15.7 million in 2012 to 26 million in 2019

  2019 - syria was largest source of refugees, turkey was largest recipient

  of all refugees 85% live in developing countries
• increasing complexity of migration - conflict and persecution have increased numbers of asylum seekers


  asylum seeker = someone who seeks entry to another country by claiming to be a refugee

  2019 - 16.2 million asylum applications submitted globally - russia, germany and usa were largest recipients
• increasing complexity of migration - conflict and persecution have increased refugees - SYRIA


  crisis in syria = major factor in recent increase

  civil war that began 2011 led to internal displacement of 6.6 million people and 5.6 international refugees

  high % moved short distances to countries sharing border - turkey 3.6 million refugees and lebanon 892,000 being biggest recipients in 2020

  lebanon - so overwhelmed by refugees that in 2015 government imposed need for entry visa whereas before movement was largely unrestricted, syrians seeking work must be sponsored by a lebanese individual
• increasing complexity of migration - conflict and persecution have increased refugees - SYRIA


  other refugees have embarked on longer more complex journeys to the EU

  many syrians reach Aksaray in Istanbul where they live temporarily before making contact with agents of traffickers

  route to europe influenced by their wealth - less costly sea route with greater risk or more expensive but safer arrangement for fake passport and direct flight