quizlet

• What is sexual selection?

  - selection of characteristics that aid successful reproduction

  - Some are a sign of genetic fitness (male peacock's tail)

  - Others like aggressiveness are adaptive as they provide on advantage over other competitors.

  - If these are genetically determined, they get passed onto offspring.

  
• What is anisogamy?


  - Basis of human reproductive behaviour

  - The difference between male and female sex cells (gametes)

  
• What is the difference between male and female sex cells?

  - Sperm are small, mobile, created continuously and do not need a lot of energy to be produced.

  - Eggs are large, static, produced only in intervals, and need a lot of energy.
• What is inter-sexual selection?

  - Between the sexes

  - The strategies that males use to select females or females use to select males

  - Trivers pointe out females make investment of time and resources into birth of a child.

  - Female's optimum mating partner is one that is genetically fit who has resources, therefore they are choosy.

  - Female preference determines features passed on to offspring (height)

  - Fisher developed sexy sons hypothesis - genes we see are those that enhanced reproductive success, passed on through generations.

  
• What is intra-sexual selection?

  - within each sex, such as the strategies between males to be the one that is selected

  - There is competition, those who win their characteristics are passed on.

  - Behavioural consequences: Characteristics that are favoured are passed on, this includes deceitfulness, men may benefit from acting tough to acquire a female = selection of aggressiveness in males.

  
• What is dimorphism?


  - Two forms, males and females end up different because of intra-sexual selection.

  - males more concerned with size, females more concerned with youthfulness.
• What is the research support for inter-sexual selection?

  - Clark and Hatfield

  - Male and female psychology students sent out on university campus

  - Approached students, asked them 'I have been noticing you around campus I found you attractive would you go to be with me tonight?'

  - No female student agreed, 75% of males did = females more choosier when picking partner
• What is the counterpoint to research support for inter-sexual selection?

  - Idea that one strategy is adaptive for all males and another for females is simplistic.

  - Strategies may differ according to length of relationship

  - Sexual strategies theory (Buss and Schmitt) argues both sexes adopt similar mating strategies for long term relationships. Both sexes choosy, may look for partner who are loving, loyal and kind. This is more complex.
• What is support from the lonely hearts research?

  - Waynforth and Dunbar

  - Studied lonely hearts section in American newspapers

  - Women offered physical attractiveness and indicators of youth (flirty, sexy, exciting)

  - Men offered resources and sought youth and attractiveness = inter-sexual selection
• What is gender bias?

  - Gender bias in evolutionary theory has given men exclusivity for being promiscuous.

  Buss (2000) suggests that blind acceptance of sexual selection theory ignores the benefits of promiscuity(having different sexual partners) for females e.g. producing genetically diverse or better quality offspring, or even using promiscuity as a way of exiting a poor quality relationship.
• What are the 3 factors affecting attraction?

  Self disclosure

  Physical attractiveness

  Filter theory
• What is self disclosure?


  - revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others

  - Self- disclosure about deep thoughts and feelings strengthen romantic bond

  - More is disclosed as relationship progresses.
• What is the social penetration theory?

  - Altman and Taylor (1973)

  - Gradual process of revealing your inner self to someone else

  - Giving away deepest thought + feelings

  - Reciprocal exchange of information, displays trust

  - Romantic partners 'penetrate' more deeply into each others lives and gain a deeper understanding of each other.
• What is the breadth and depth of self- disclosure?

  - Altman and Taylor say there are two elements of self

  disclosure: breadth and depth.

  - As these both increase, they become more committed to each other. (like layers of an onion)

  - Initially disclose low risk info that we would be happy to reveal to anyone.

  - Eventually disclose topics close to our hearts that matter to us - high-risk info.
• What is depenetration?


  > How dissatisfied partners self

  disclose less as they gradually disengage from the

  relationship.
• What is the reciprocity of self-disclosure?

  -Reis and Shaver (1988) suggest that in order for a relationship to develop there needs to be a reciprocal element to disclosure as well as depth and breadth.

  - When you disclose something that reveals your true self, hopefully your partner will respond in a way that is rewarding to you e.g. with understanding, empathy and also their own intimate thoughts and feelings.

  - There must be a balance of self-disclosure

  between both partners in a successful romantic relationship = increases feelings of intimacy and deepens the relationship.
• What is the research support for self-disclosure?

  - Sprecher and Hendrick

  - studied heterosexual couples, found correlation between measures of satisfaction and self-disclosure for both partners.

  - Men and women who used self-disclosure = more satisfied and committed to relationship

  - Sprecher showed relationships are closer when partners take time to self-disclose.

  - Increases validity of theory, has practical value
• What is the counterpoint?

  - Self disclosure research tends to be correlational e.g. Sprecher and Hendricik's study.

  - Assumed that greater self-disclosure = more satisfaction but a correlation does not tell us if this is a valid conclusion to draw.

  - Correlation does not = causation.

  - Alternative explanations are just as likely. It may be that the more satisfied the partners are = more they self disclose.

  - Or it could be that self disclosure and satisfaction are independent of each other and both are

  caused by a third variable e.g. the amount of time the partners spend together.

  Therefore, self-disclosures may not cause satisfaction directly, reducing the validity of social penetration theory of self disclosure.
• What is real-world application of self-disclosure?

  - Research into self-disclosure can help people who want to improve communication in their relationships.

  - Romantic partners sometimes use self-disclosure to deliberately increase intimacy and strengthen their bond.

  - Hass and Stafford (1998) found that 57% of gay men and women in their study said that open and honest self-disclosure was the main way to maintain and deepen their relationships.

  - If less skilled partners learn to use self-disclosure than this could benefit the relationship by deepening satisfaction and commitment.

  - Valuable in helping people who are having problems in their relationships.
• What is the problem with cultural differences?

  - Increasing depth and breadth of self-disclosures may not = more satisfying and intimate relationship

  in all cultures.

  - Tang (2013) reviewed research regarding sexual

  self-disclosure related to feelings about specific sexual

  practices. They concluded that men and women in USA

  self-disclose more sexual thoughts than men and women in China.

  - Levels of satisfaction were no different between the two countries.

  - Limited explanation of romantic relationships based on Western cultures.
• What is the importance of physical attractiveness?

  - Shackleford and Larson (1997) - found those with a symmetrical face are rated more attractive as it is an honest sign of genetic fitness.

  - Also attracted to baby-face features like - small nose and large eyes = shows caring instinct.
• What is the halo effect?

  - We believe that good looking people have positive character traits.

  - Dion et al(1972) summarise this stereotype 'What is beautiful is good.'

  - Attractive people rated being kind, strong and sociable.

  - (self-fulfilling prophecy)

  - This one distinguishing feature appears to have a disproportionate influence on our judgement of people's personalities.

  
• What is the matching hypothesis?

  Choosing someone at our own level of attractiveness

  
• What is the research by Walster and Walster (1969)


  - On Matching hypothesis

  - Designed 'The Computer Dance'

  - Male and female students dance, physical attractiveness rated by objective observers + had to fill out questionnaire.

  - Told data about themselves (like their personality) and this info used by computer to decide their partner.
• What were the findings of Walster et al's research?


  - hypothesis not supported

  - Most liked partners who were the most attractive rather than at a similar level of attractiveness to themselves.

  - However, Berscheid replicated this study and found that participants picked partners that were at a similar level of attractiveness to themselves.

  - Means that we choose someone at a similar level of attractiveness to us as we do not want to risk rejection so we settle for those in 'our league'.
• What is the research support for the halo effect? (Strength)

  - Palmer and Peterson

  - Found attractive people rated more politically knowledgeable and competent compared to unattractive.

  - The halo effect was so powerful that it persisted when they knew they had no knowledge in this area - suggests dangers for democracy and who is voted.
• What is the evolutionary explanation? (Strength)

  - Role of physical attractiveness supports evolution

  - Cunningham found that women who had large eyes, prominent cheekbones etc. rated attractive by white, Hispanic + Asian men.

  - Concluded that what is considered attractive is the same over different societies.

  - Attractive features like a symmetrical face are a sign of genetic fitness and therefore the same in many cultures (sexual selection)
• What is the research that challenges the matching hypothesis? (Limitation)

  - Taylor et al studied activity logs of a popular dating site.

  - This was a real-world test, found that online daters sought meetings with potential partners who were more physically attractive than them = undermines validity of the matching hypothesis.
• What is the counterpoint?

  - Choosing individuals for dating could be different to selecting a partner for a romantic relationship.

  - Feingold carried out a meta-analysis of 17 studies and found a correlation in ratings of physical attractiveness between romantic partners..

  - Just because online daters may seek out more attractive partners doesn't mean that they necessarily get them. (Could be just a fantasy like lab research)
• What are the three levels in the filter theory?

  - Social demography

  - Similarity in attitudes

  - Complementarity
• How was the filter theory developed?

  - Kerchoff and Davis (1962)

  - Compared attitudes and personalities of student couples in short-term (less than 18 months) and long term relationships.

  - They developed the filter theory from this.

  - It is an explanation of how relationships are formed, allows us to narrow down to a field of desirables.
• What is the first level of the filter?

  - Social demography

  - Wide range of factors that include: social class, geographical location and level of education.

  - You are more likely to meet people who are physically close to you (key benefit of proximity = accessibility), leads to homogamy and similarity.

  - Anyone who is too 'different' is discounted as a potential partner.
• What is the second level of the filter?

  - Similarity in attitudes

  - Is important for the development of romantic relationships, only for couples who have been together for less than 18 months.

  - Need in early stages to agree over basic values which promotes self-disclosure.

  - Bryne called this the 'law of attraction', the relationship is likely to fizzle out if there is not a lot of similarity.
• What is the third level of the filter?

  - Complementarity

  - Ability to meet each others needs.

  - e.g. one may be more dominant in the relationship compared to the other.

  - More important for long term couples

  - It gives the feeling that the couple works together as a whole, adds depth to a relationship which means it is more likely to flourish.
• What is the research support for the filter theory?

  - Kerchoff and Davis' original study

  - Conducted longitudinal study, both partners completed questionnaire to assess 2 main factors: similarity of attitudes and complementarity of needs,

  - Relationship closeness was measured with another questionnaire seven months later.

  - Study found that closeness was associated with similarity for values for couples who had been together for less than 18 months. (complementarity of needs was for long term relationships) = supports 2 levels of the filter theory.
• What is the counterpoint?

  - Levinger pointed out that the findings of this study has failed to be replicated over time.

  - Put this down to social changes (dating patterns) over time, also problems determining depth of relationship in terms of its length.

  - Kerchoff and Davis chose an 18 month cut off point to distinguish between short-term and long-term relationships = assuming that partners who were together longer than this were more committed.

  - Questionable assumption which undermines its validity.
• What are the problems with complementarity? (limitation)

  - May not be central to all long-term relationships.

  - Filter theory says that the most satisfactory relationships are complementary (dominant/submissive).

  - Markey and Markey found that lesbian couples who had equal dominance were the most satisfied.

  - All together for an average time of more than 4 years.
• Actual vs perceived similarity(limitation)

  - Montoya et al did a meta-analysis of 313 studies and found that actual similarity affected attraction only in short term lab-based interactions.

  - In real world relationships perceived similarity was a stronger predictor of attraction.

  - One interpretation of this finding is that partners may perceive greater similarities as they become more attracted to each other.

  - Perceived similarity may be an effect of attraction and not a cause which is not predicted by the filter model.
• Who proposed the social exchange theory?

  Thibault and Kelley (1959)
• What is the social exchange theory?


  - We try to minimise losses and maximise gains

  - we judge satisfaction in a relationship by profit.

  - These are subjective, value of rewards and cost might change over time.

  - rewards = companionship, sex, emotional support.

  - Costs = time, stress, money, compromise.