Relationships AO3

• Strength of social penetration theory

  • Several predictions about self-disclosure have been supported by research
• Susan Sprecher and Susan Hendrick (2004) studied heterosexual dating couples and found strong correlations between several measures of satisfaction and self-disclosure for both partners
• Men and women who used self-disclosure (and believed their partners did likewise) were more satisfied with and committed to their romantic relationship
• Sprecher et al. (2013) showed that relationships are closer and more satisfying when partners take turns to self-disclose (i.e., disclosure is reciprocated)
• Strength of research into self-disclosure

  • Can help people who want to improve communication in their relationships
• Romantic partners sometimes use self-disclosure deliberately to increase intimacy and strengthen their bond
• Stephen Haas and Laura Stafford (1998) found that self-disclosure was the main way partners maintained and deepened their relationships
• If less-skilled partners (e.g., those who limit communication to small talk) learn to use self-disclosure, this could bring several benefits to their relationships in terms of deepening satisfaction and commitment
• Nu Tang et al. (2013) reviewed research into sexual self-disclosure (i.e., disclosures related to feelings about specific sexual practices)
• They concluded that men and women in the US (generally an individualist culture) self-disclose significantly more sexual thoughts and feelings than men and women in China (generally a collectivist culture)
• Despite lower levels of disclosure in China, levels of satisfaction were no different from those in the US
• Strength of evidence that physical attractiveness is associated with a halo effect

  • Carl Palmer and Rolfe Peterson (2012) found that physically attractive people were rated as more politically knowledgeable and competent than unattractive people
• This halo effect persisted even when participants knew these 'knowledgeable' people had no particular expertise
• This finding suggests dangers for democracy if politicians are judged suitable for office based on physical attractiveness
• Strength of the role of physical attractiveness as research support for evolutionary processes

  • Michael Cunningham et al. (1995) found that women with features such as large eyes, prominent cheekbones, small nose, and high eyebrows were rated as highly attractive by white, Hispanic, and Asian men
• This consistency across different societies suggests that attractive features are a sign of genetic fitness and are perpetuated similarly in all cultures, supporting sexual selection
• Lindsay Taylor et al. (2011) studied the activity logs of a popular online dating site, providing a real-world test of the matching hypothesis by measuring actual date choices rather than preferences
• The researchers found that online daters sought meetings with potential partners who were more physically attractive than themselves
• Strength of Kerckhoff and Davis's original study supporting the filter theory

  • They conducted a longitudinal study with dating couples, assessing similarity of attitudes/values and complementarity of needs
• They found that similarity of values was associated with closeness for couples together less than 18 months, while complementarity of needs predicted closeness in longer relationships
• Patrick Markey and Charlotte Markey (2013) found that lesbian couples of equal dominance were most satisfied, with relationships averaging over 4½ years
• A meta-analysis by Matthew Montoya et al. (2008) found that actual similarity influenced attraction only in short-term lab interactions
• In real-world relationships, perceived similarity was a stronger predictor of attraction
• Strength of research support for aspects of Social Exchange Theory (SET)

  • Lawrence Kurdek (1995) asked gay, lesbian, and heterosexual couples to complete questionnaires measuring relationship commitment and SET variables
• He found that partners who were most committed perceived the most rewards, fewest costs, and viewed alternatives as unattractive
• This was the first study to show that the main SET concepts predicting commitment are independent of each other
• Strength of evidence from real-world relationships supporting equity theory as a more valid explanation than Social Exchange Theory (SET)

  • Mary Utne et al. (1984) surveyed 118 recently-married couples, finding that those who perceived their relationship as equitable were more satisfied than those who felt overbenefitted or underbenefitted
• Katherine Aumer-Ryan et al. (2007) found that in individualist cultures like the US, couples were most satisfied when their relationships were equitable
• However, in collectivist cultures like Jamaica, couples were most satisfied when they were overbenefitting
• Richard Huseman et al. (1987) identified "benevolents," who are willing to contribute more than they receive, and "entitleds," who feel they deserve to overbenefit without distress
• Cues like message style and timing play significant roles in online interactions, challenging the theory's assumption of reduced personalization online
• The use of acronyms, emoticons, and emojis serves as effective substitutes for facial expressions and tone of voice, suggesting that virtual relationships can be as personal as face-to-face (FtF) ones
• While self-report studies indicate greater self-disclosures in FtF relationships, experimental studies show no significant differences
• Evidence suggests that online self-presentation differs from FtF interactions, with virtual interactions often featuring unique conversational patterns and hyperdishonest self-disclosures, such as embellishing online dating profiles
• Strength of support for the absence of gating in virtual relationships

  • Shy, lonely, and socially anxious individuals benefit from virtual relationships, indicating the absence of gating barriers present in FtF interactions
• Research by McKenna and Bargh (2000) demonstrates that such individuals can express their true selves more freely online, leading to successful long-term relationships
• This suggests that virtual environments offer a more conducive space for forming connections for those who face obstacles in face-to-face interactions
• Strength of research support for the levels model of parasocial relationships

  • McCutcheon et al. (2016) utilized the CAS to measure levels of parasocial relationships and assessed participants' issues in intimate relationships
• They found that individuals classified as borderline-pathological or intense-personal tended to experience high levels of anxiety in their intimate relationships
• Conversely, those at the entertainment-social level generally did not exhibit such issues