kantian ethics

• Kantian ethics


  • Wanted to solve the problem that those of different faiths could never come to agreement
  • Religious warfare had been greatly destructive in Europe
  • Kant's solution was to base religion and ethics on reason not faith
  • Reason is universal so if ethics could be based on reason, Kant conceived a more harmonious society would follow
  • Kant thought humanity was ready for greater autonomy than faith based morality laws was giving
• Kant's ethics was predominantly a reaction to Hume's denial that right and wrong existed
• Reason


  Discovers universal laws e.g. maths so a moral law discoverable by reason will also be universal
• Basing morality on reason


  Means its not based on subjective desires, not contingent on our feelings: categorical and not hypothetical
• Deontological (duty based) ethics


  Depends on right action with right intention regardless of the situation or consequences
• Good will


  • Right intention when performing their duty
  • Once we have used our reason to figure out duty we should act purely out of a sense of duty
  • We should ignore personal feelings and do 'duty for duty's sake'
  • e.g. its our duty to give money to charity, we should do it not out of sympathy but because its our duty
  • Only morally valid motivation for an action is respect for the moral law
• Categorical imperative


  Reason tells us other people are also rational agents so we are all equal. So, reason tells us we should only act on principles that can be followed by everyone.
• Hypothetical imperative


  Imperative that involves a qualifier - moral action that a rational person will adopt for reasons other than duty (we shouldn't do this)
• We have a moral duty to follow the universal moral law regardless of our desires
• Formula of the law of nature (universal law)

  We should only act on an ethical principle if it is logically possible for everyone to act on it
• Persons as ends


  • Kant believes that we should treat people as an end in themselves, as free rational beings who should be treated with respect and not exploited under any circumstances
  • We shouldn't treat anyone as a means to an end
• Kingdom of ends


  • Combination of the first two
  • Imagine we are part of a law making group in an imaginary country where everyone treats others as an end
  • Suggests a categorical imperative is an imperative that could be permitted in such a place
  • We must not put aside the moral law simply because others might not be following it
• The three postulates


  • God, immortality, free will
  • Kant realised good people are not always rewarded in life which is unjust
  • For ethics to work there needs to be justice
  • There must be a God who lets us into an afterlife where good people are rewarded with happiness
  • Summum bonus = highest happiness
• We can't help using others as a means to an end
• e.g. are we not using the teacher in school as a means to good grades
• Kant's counterpoint


  • We shouldn't solely use people as a means to an end
  • We should treat, e.g. the teacher, with respect
• Philippa Foot challenges Kant's view that morality should be based on a series of categorical imperatives
• Philippa Foot's view


  • What's missing from Kant's account is an explanation of our motives and desires
  • Hypothetical imperatives actually give us a clear reason to act
  • e.g if we WANT a good grade then we HAVE to study
  • Many of the virtues / good character traits are things we must freely choose to do
  • This means they are contingent
  • Its hoped these virtues are things we desire and that this will motivate us to do an action
  • But they may not - everything is hypothetical
  • Foot suggests we should be volunteers of being virtuous, not forced
• Strength of Kant


  • Emotions cannot constitute moral motivation
  • He argues emotions are unreliable because they are transient
  • Acting on emotion isn't morally wrong but it can't be morally good
  • Only acting out of duty can be morally good
• Barbara Hermann's interpretation


  Emotions can only lead to a right action by luck, emotions can't be moral motives because they don't provide an agent with a moral interest
• Counterpoint criticism: emotions can have value as motivation for moral action
• Bernard Williams: influenced by Aristotle, Kantian morality is too narrow, distinguishes it from ethics