Forensics

• Top down approach


  • There is support for a distinct organised category of offender
  • Can be adapted to other kinds of crime
• Canter 2004 analysis


  • 100 US murders each committed by a different serial killer
  • Smallest space analysis used to identify correlations across different samples of behaviour
• Analysis revealed a subset of features of many serial killers which matched the FBI's typology for organised offenders
• Top down profiling


  • Has been applied to burglary leading to an 85% rise in solved cases in 3 US states
  • Added 2 new categories: interpersonal offender and opportunistic offender
• The top down approach does not have a sound scientific basis due to the poor sample used in the FBI's research
• Bottom up approach


  • Evidence for investigative psychology
  • Evidence for geographical profiling
• Canter and Heritage's analysis of 66 sexual assaults identified common behaviours that can help establish if offences were committed by the same person
• Lundrigan and Canter's analysis of 120 murder cases involving serial killers showed spatial consistency in their behaviour
• Geographical profiling may not be sufficient on its own due to inaccuracies in crime recording
• Cesare Lombroso


  Father of modern criminology, shifted focus from moralistic view to scientific perspective considering evolutionary influences and genetics
• Lombroso's theories linking physical types to specific crimes laid the groundwork for offender profiling
• Charles Goring's study found no evidence that offenders are a distinct group with unusual physical characteristics, challenging Lombroso's ideas
• Lombroso's research was poorly controlled and did not account for confounding variables like social conditions
• Twin studies may not effectively separate nature and nurture due to the assumption of equal environments
• Adoption studies support the diathesis-stress model, indicating both genetic and environmental factors are important in offending
• Frontal lobe damage is associated with antisocial behaviour, supporting the neural explanation of crime
• The relationship between neural differences, antisocial personality disorder, and offending is complex with other intervening variables
• Eysenck's theory


  • Evidence supporting the criminal personality
  • Limitations in explaining all offending behaviour and cultural factors
• Kohlberg's theory is supported by evidence linking level of moral reasoning to crime, but may depend on type of offence
• Cognitive distortions have practical value in therapy but vary in use across different types of offenders
• Differential association theory


  • Shifted focus away from biological and individual explanations
  • Can account for offending across social classes
• Differential association theory risks stereotyping individuals from certain backgrounds as inevitable offenders
• It is difficult to test the predictions of differential association theory
• Differential association theory


  • Moved the emphasis away from early biological accounts and theories that explained offending as a product of individual weakness or immorality
  • Highlights the role of deviant social circumstances and environments in offending
  • Offers realistic solutions to offending, unlike eugenics or punishment
• Differential association theory


  • Can account for offending across all sectors of society
  • Sutherland coined the term 'white-collar crime' to describe corporate offenses prevalent in middle-class social groups with deviant norms and values
• Psychodynamic approach


  • Research support for the link between offending and the Superego
  • Miroslav Goreta found disturbances in Superego formation in all cases, with offenders experiencing unconscious guilt and a need for self-punishment
• Custodial sentencing


  • Provides opportunities for training and treatment
  • Rehabilitation is an objective of imprisonment, aiming to help offenders become better people and lead crime-free lives upon release
• Behavior modification


  • Evidence to support its effectiveness, such as the token economy program studies
• Behavior modification


  • Relatively straightforward to set up in custody, with easy administration and cost-effectiveness
• Anger management


  • Benefits may outlast those of behaviour modification, as it addresses the cognitive processes that trigger anger and offending behaviour
• Restorative justice


  • Evidence suggests positive outcomes, with 85% of survivors satisfied with the process and 78% willing to recommend it
• Restorative justice


  • Appears to reduce reoffending rates, particularly for violent crimes