alternative models only

• classical conditioning explanation of phobias


  • Watson and Raynor outlined the case of little Albert was made phobic of rates, despite previously having no fear of them
  • this was done by repeated pairings of a loud noise with a white rat. this was generalised to other white things like rabbits
• operant conditioning explanation of phobias

  • this process of learning requites reinforcement to shape behaviour
  • so reinforcers could explain phobias

  positive reinforcement

  • show some signs of anxiety when see a large dog, and the comfort/attention from parent is then taken as a reward of this behaviour
  • next time you see a large dog, you show the feelings of anxiety to gain the reward of comfort again

  negative reinforcement

  • removal of unpleasant experience
  • someone with a lift phobia gets anxiety when walking towards a lift
  • if they walk away this removes the feelings of anxiety
• social learning theory explanation of phobias


  • if a child sees a significant adult with a phobia of a particular animal, they might imitate this behaviour
• negative cognitive triad

  cognitive explanations for a disorder or any dysfunctional behaviour is that the individual is suffering from faulty, irrational or simply unhelpful thought patterns

  Beck suggested that there are 3 main dysfunctional beliefs in people with depression which form a cognitive triad:

  • I am worthless or flawed
  • everything I do results in failure
  • the future is hopeless

  we acquire these in childhood loss of a loved one create a negative bias that sticks with us and later triggered another events
• Ellis and faulty cognitions


  cognitive explanations for a disorder or any dysfunctional behaviour is that the individual is suffering from faulty, irrational or simply unhelpful thought patterns

  Ellis proposed that irrational thoughts could cause and sustain mental disorders, and believed that faulty cognitions can be summarised within the following 3 points:

  • awfulising- it is awful if I get turned down for a date
  • can't-stand-its- I can't stand not doing well in an exam
  • musterbating- people must like me or I am worthless
• aim of treatments based on the cognitive approach


  • change people's beliefs/expectations and ways of thinking through therapy
• background- psychodynamic


  • unconscious memories/feelings will manifest themselves in our behaviour
  • conflicts between the Id, Ego and Superego can create anxiety or guilt
  • a weak Ego could result in the Id not being controlled
  • may lead to loss of contact with reality as the person unable to identify where their desires end and reality begins

  ego defence mechanisms are involved: overusing denial, repression may cause a person to act unconsciously motivated, aim of treatment is to bring conflicts and emotions into the conscious mind to be resolved
• likely psychodynamic treatments


  • traditionally Freud used techniques such as free association, dream analysis and hypnosis
• Szasz


  • follow up to a criticism of psychiatry and discusses what he sees as the current issues with he psychiatric system in the US
  • mental illness has become too medicalised- there is too much emphasis on diagnosing and treating mental illness through medication
  • mental illness is a myth or a metaphor
  • mental illness has become to politicised
  • psychiatric hospitals have become more like prisons
  • this approach denies people responsibility for their wrong-doing
• Szasz in relation to reductionism/holism

  • thought of as offering a more holistic view of mental illness as although symptoms may be real, the diagnosis they attract can be explained by a wider understanding of society and the process of medicating and labelling human behaviours
• Szasz in relation to usefulness

  • seen as useful in terms of its impact on the world of psychiatry and perhaps has helped empower users of mental health services/ changed some opinions
  • however the examples given of misuse are sometimes chatter archaic. many people with metal illness do seek help and although perhaps labels are not helpful, help is
• Szasz in relation to ethnocentrism

  • focuses on western and medically model based systems when attacking the idea of mental illness
  • variations in practice and labelling do exist and it is unclear whether he thinks all systems across the world are equally bad
• Szasz in relation to socially sensitive

  • his views can raise major concerns in people with mental illnesses, suggesting they may not be ill at all
  • this itself could in theory lead to positive reviews of systems, but at the same time major mistrust in the medical profession and people not seeking help when needed
  • if someone commits a crime after suffering major brain damage causing a mental illness should that not be taken into account?
• behaviourist appliaction- flooding


  • one way to make the treatment quicker is to present the feared object directly. the immediate fear response caused by adrenaline is not sustainable and will eventually calm down by itself
  • the feeling of calm can then be associated with the feared object
  • however this can cause panic and reinforcement of the phobia rather than extinguish it, especially if the person is allowed to leave the situation before their adrenaline levels have naturally reduced
• behaviourist application- aversion therapy


  • this can be used to produce an unpleasant association like nausea in alcohol addiction
  • a drug called an emetic can be used to make people sick
  • repeated pairings will result in a learned response of aversion to alcohol
• behaviourist application- systematic desensitisation

  • therapy relying on the principle of classical conditioning
  • it works by forming new associations between an item currently feared, and the sensation of being calm
  • the therapy consists of the gradual pairing of a previously feared stimulus with relaxation techniques
  • McGrath documented the case of Lucy- 9 year old with a noise phobia, she created a fear hierarchy, was taught breathing and imagery to relax, she learnt to associate the noise with feeling calm and after 4 sessions she could single a balloon being burst with only mild anxiety
• cognitive application- rational emotive therapy

  • assumes disorders can result from cognitive appraisals that are based on misperceptions or irrational beliefs
  • through a process of cognitive restructuring stress provoking thoughts or beliefs are replaced with more constructive or realistic ones
  • patients are often given homework assignments to test themselves out between sessions

  Activating event (phobic stimulus)

  Beliefs (about the stimulus)

  Consequences (actions to avoid stimulus)

  in therapy add:

  Disputing (questioning irrational beliefs)

  Effect (restructured thoughts))