ملخص د.اروى

• The thing or person to which a word refers to in the world

  is called a referent.
• The same expression or phrase may have different potential referents. Thus many expressions in a language can have variable reference.
• In the case of variable reference: The referent of an expression may vary according to circumstances (time and place) and the topic of conversation.
• There are cases of expressions which in normal everyday conversation never refer to different things, i.e. they only have constant reference.
• Relation #2: There are cases of expressions which in normal everyday conversation never refer to different things, i.e. they only have constant reference.
• Relation #3: Two different expressions can have the same referent
• Analytic sentences and Contradictory sentences are not

  informative, because they have nothing new to teach us in real life. We already know their truth or falsity from the facts of our real daily life
• Synthetic sentences are informative. What they propose is open for examination to check its truth or falsity in real life
• We categorize sentences based on their literal, not figurative meaning,
• Imperative and interrogative sentences are not categorized Accordingly
• Sense properties of sentences depends on the sense properties and the sense relations of the words they contain
• The Basic Rule of Sense Inclusion does not work in all

  cases. There are exceptions when certain logical words –such as not and all - or gradable adjectives – such as big or small – are involved.
• This utterance is more than just a statement.

  -Actions performed via utterances are called speech acts such as apology, complaint, compliment, invitation, promise, or request.
• Reference


  The relationship between parts of a language and things outside the language (in the world)
• Referent


  is external in the sense that each word has a thing or person to refer to in the external world.
• Predicator


  of a simple declarative sentence is the word which does not belong to any of the referring expressions
• Predicates


  The semantic role of a predicator
• Predicate


  is any word (or sequence of words) which (in a given single sense) can function as the predicator of a sentence.
• Deictic words


  Words which take some element of their meaning from the context or situation (i.e. the speaker, the addressee/hearer, the time and place) of the utterance in which it is used (I / you).
• Personal pronouns


  (I, you, them, we): Person deixis
• Demonstrative Pronouns?


  (This, that, these& those) Place deixis
• Adverb of place

  (here and there, etc.) Place deixis
• Adverb of time


  (today, yesterday, tomorrow, now, etc.) Time deixis
• Reported speech 


  It is a case of change of the speaker that involves a change in the deictic center
• Context of an utterance


  It is a small subpart of the Universe of discourse shared by speakers and hearers
• Extension


  of a one-place predicate is the complete set or group of all things/individuals to which the predicate can truthfully be applied
• Fuzziness of extensions


  It refers to the ambiguity and difficulty that the speaker finds in deciding clearly on a member or members of the set or groups of the extension.
• Prototype of a predicate


  it is a typical member of its extension. Prototypes are the most typical members of the extension of a predicate.
• Ostensive definitions


  refers to defining predicates or prototypes of concrete things by pointing out to them. This is how the prototype of a predicate is early learned in the life of a child
• Analytic Sentence


  it is one that is necessarily TRUE based on the senses or facts of the words contained in it (their definition)
• Synthetic Sentence


  it is one which is not may be true or false depending on the way the external world is (the circumstances of the situation)
• Contradictory Sentence


  it is one that is necessarily FALSE based on the senses of the words in it. Thus, it is the opposite of an analytic sentence
• Stereotype


  of a predicate is abstract and refers to a list of the typical characteristics of things to which the predicate can be applied
• Prototype


  of a predicate refers to actual things
• Sense relations


  we mean relations between one expression (either an individual predicate or a whole sentence) and another expression in a language
• Synonymy


  is the relationship between two predicates that have the same sense
• Paraphrase


  sentence which expresses the same proposition as another sentence is a paraphrase of that sentence
• Hyponymy


  is a sense relation between predicates (or sometimes longer phrases) such that the meaning of one predicate (or phrase) is included in the meaning of the other.
• Entailment


  The notion of hyponymy, which involves meaning inclusion between individual predicates, can be extended to a particular kind of meaning inclusion between sentences
• Pragmatics


  is the study of meaning as communicated by a speaker or writer and interpreted by a reader or listener.