INTRGEN

• Genetics


  The study of heredity and the variation of inherited characteristics
• Key reasons to study Genetics

  • Understanding Disease
  • Connecting Life Forms
  • Controlling Life Processes
  • Transforming Agriculture
  • Species Conservation
• Personalized Medicine


  Tailoring treatments to an individual's unique genetic makeup for better effectiveness
• Carbohydrates


  Essential biomolecules that fuel our cells and play diverse roles in living organisms
• Carbohydrate formation


  Linking together smaller sugar units called monosaccharides to form complex molecules called polysaccharides
• Carbohydrates


  • They are a primary source of energy for cells, broken down during digestion to release usable energy
  • Some act as markers on cell surfaces, aiding in cell recognition and communication
  • In plants, cellulose provides structural strength to cell walls
  • Plants and algae can synthesize carbohydrates from scratch using sunlight or UV radiation through photosynthesis
  • Autotrophs like plants can create their own carbohydrates, while heterotrophs like humans obtain them from food (plants and animals)
  • They can combine with other biomolecules like proteins to form complex structures on cell surfaces, further aiding in cell identification
• Lipids


  Essential molecules that play crucial roles in our bodies
• Lipids


  • They are crucial for maintaining the integrity of cell membranes, the outer layer that protects and controls what enters and leaves the cell
  • They facilitate the passage of essential molecules across cell membranes
  • Certain lipids act as enzymes or hormones, regulating various cellular processes
  • They serve as a primary energy source and storage mechanism, with excess accumulating as fat
  • They provide a waterproof layer for cells and tissues, preventing dehydration
• Proteins


  Essential biomolecules, forming muscles, hormones, and many other structures
• Proteins


  • Amino acids linked together in chains create proteins with various shapes and sizes (B-helix, globules, etc.), leading to diverse functions
  • Early studies used stains to identify proteins and DNA in chromosomes
• DNA


  The genetic material, the blueprint that carries instructions for building and maintaining an organism
• RNA


  Acts as a messenger carrying instructions from DNA to the protein-making machinery within cells
• Scientists initially believed proteins, due to their diversity, might be the genetic material
• Staining techniques revealed both DNA and proteins in chromosomes, leading to early confusion
• Indirect evidence gradually pointed towards DNA's role in heredity
• DNA's chemical simplicity initially cast doubt on its ability to store genetic information
• Supercoiling


  The process of twisting the DNA molecule upon itself, making it more compact and fitting neatly within the cell's nucleus (in eukaryotes) or cytoplasm (in bacteria)
• Gene expression control


  • Cells only need specific proteins at certain times
  • Supercoiling helps regulate gene expression. Tightly coiled DNA regions are inaccessible for protein production (gene silencing)
  • When a gene needs to be expressed, the DNA in that region unwinds, allowing protein production machinery to access the instructions encoded in the genes
• Histones


  Specialized proteins that bind and package DNA into a structure called chromatin
• Core Histones


  • H2A
  • H2AZ
  • H2AX
  • H2B
  • H3
  • H4
• Histones


  • H2A maintains structure and regulates gene expression
  • H2AZ is involved in gene expression, especially for "housekeeping genes" constantly used by the body
  • H2AX is crucial for DNA repair, helps identify and mark damaged areas
  • H2B binds to DNA and H2A, helps stabilize the nucleosome structure
  • H3 is crucial for assembly and stability, undergoes modifications (methylation, acetylation, phosphorylation) that alter its shape slightly
  • H4 maintains structure and stability, undergoes modifications
  • H3 and H4 histones combine to form a tetramer, a building block for the core structure
  • The histone octamer, formed by two each of H2A, H2B, H3, and H4 histones, provides spools around which DNA wraps
  • The linker histone (H1) binds to the linker DNA between nucleosomes, helping to stabilize the chromatin fiber
• Nucleic acids


  The master molecules that store and transmit hereditary information
• Differences between DNA and RNA

  • DNA has deoxyribose sugar, which lacks an oxygen atom compared to the ribose sugar in RNA. This lack of oxygen allows DNA to form a stable double helix structure for long-term storage of information
  • DNA's double helix structure makes it more stable than RNA's single strand, except for transfer RNA (tRNA) which has a unique structure
• Applications of nucleic acids

  • Agarose gel electrophoresis: a technique used in labs to separate and analyze DNA molecules based on their size and charge
• While DNA contains the blueprint, it's not the sole determinant of an organism's traits. Environmental factors (nurture) also play a significant role in how genes are expressed and how an organism develops
• DNA


  The control center for all living things, from the simplest organisms to the most complex
• Understanding and manipulating DNA

  • Allows us to potentially eradicate diseases
  • Solve hunger by producing sustainable, high-quality food
  • Develop new ways to adapt to environmental changes
  • Create resources like lab-grown meat, minimizing environmental impact
• DNA is not directly passed on from generation to generation. It undergoes mutations, recombination, and genetic drift, leading to variations in genes over time
• Family trees demonstrate how these variations in DNA are inherited across generations
• DNA


  The molecule that holds the blueprint of life
• DNA


  • It is the control center for all living things, from the simplest organisms to the most complex
  • Understanding and manipulating DNA allows us to potentially eradicate diseases, solve hunger by producing sustainable, high-quality food, develop new ways to adapt to environmental changes, and create resources like lab-grown meat, minimizing environmental impact
• DNA is not directly passed on from generation to generation
• DNA undergoes mutations, recombination, and genetic drift, leading to variations in genes over time
• Family trees demonstrate how these variations create diverse individuals
• DNA


  A twisted ladder-like structure formed by two strands connected by nitrogenous bases
• Nucleotide


  The subunits that make up each strand of DNA
• Sugar and Phosphate Group

  Provide structural support for the DNA backbone
• Phosphodiester bond


  The bond formed between the phosphate group of one nucleotide and the sugar of another
• Nitrogenous Bases


  • Pyrimidines (Cytosine & Thymine)
  • Purines (Adenine & Guanine)
• Base pairing


  Adenine pairs with Thymine (double hydrogen bonds), Guanine pairs with Cytosine (triple hydrogen bonds)