urban issues and challenges

• Development


  Positive change that makes things better, always that people's standard of living and quality of life
• Gross National Income (GNI)


  Measure of the total value of goods and services produced by a country, expressed as per head (per capita) of the population
• Human Development Index (HDI)


  Composite statistic used to rank countries based on life expectancy, education, and per capita income indicators
• BRICS countries


  • Brazil
  • Russia
  • India
  • China
  • South Africa
• MINT countries


  • Mexico
  • Indonesia
  • Nigeria
  • Turkey
• GNI and HDI are useful measures of development, but they have limitations as they only consider averages and may not reflect the quality of life for all individuals
• Birth rate


  • Decreases as countries develop, as women become more educated and want smaller families
• Death rate


  • Tends to be higher in developed countries due to older populations, but lower in less developed countries as more young people survive
• Infant mortality rate


  • A useful measure of a country's healthcare system
• Literacy rate


  • A high literacy rate indicates a good education system
• Economic and social measures can show how developed a country is, but the data may be out of date, unreliable or not capture informal economies
• Physical causes of uneven development

  Landlocked countries, diseases and pests, extreme weather, lack of clean water
• Economic causes of uneven development

  Unfair trade conditions, raw material prices fluctuating
• Historical causes of uneven development

  Colonialism, difficulties after independence
• Uneven development leads to disparities in wealth and health between and within countries
• In poor countries, healthcare is often patchy and infectious diseases are the main cause of death, while in rich countries chronic diseases are more common
• Types of migration


  Economic migrant, refugee, displaced person, immigrant, emigrant
• Migration is a consequence of uneven development, as people move to seek a better life or flee conflict and disasters
• Strategies to reduce the development gap

  Investment, industrial development, tourism
• Investment by countries and multinational companies can support development in poorer countries, but there are concerns about exploitation of resources
• Industrial development creates employment, higher incomes and opportunities to invest in infrastructure, education and health, leading to a 'multiplier effect'
• Investment


  Many countries and TNCs invest money and expertise in LICs to increase their profits, which supports the LICs development by providing employment and income
• Chinese investment in Africa

  • Investing in a power plant in Zimbabwe
  • Railway construction in Sudan
• Chinese investment in Africa


  Benefits China's own economy
• Industrial development


  • Brings employment, higher incomes and opportunities to invest in housing, education and infrastructure (e.g. transport networks, water and sewerage)
  • The population then becomes better educated and healthier, which provides more opportunities to invest in industries and business
  • This circular process is called the multiplier effect
• Industrial development in Malaysia

  • Dramatic growth in wealth since the 1970s
  • Made use of foreign investment to exploit natural resources and develop a thriving manufacturing sector
  • Now has a highly-developed mixed economy
• Tourism


  • Can generate a lot of income but is vulnerable in times of economic recession
  • Can lead to investment and increased income from abroad, which can be used for improved education, infrastructure and housing
• Investment provides employment and income from abroad
• Industrial development brings employment, higher incomes and opportunities to invest
• Tourism has led to investment and increased income from abroad
• Aid


  Money, emergency supplies, food or technology donated by a country or non-governmental organisation (NGO) to another country to help it develop or improve people's lives
• Aid from Oxfam

  • Goat Aid - helping families buy a goat which produces milk, meat and fertiliser, and builds community spirit
• Intermediate technology


  Sustainable and appropriate to the needs, knowledge and wealth of local people, taking the form of small-scale projects
• Adis Nifas dam in Ethiopia


  • Used local building materials
  • Provided local employment
  • Used local tools and knowledge
  • The irrigated land provides food for the people
• Free trade


  When countries do not charge tariffs and have no quotas, with the potential to benefit the world's poorest countries
• Fairtrade


  An international movement that sets standards for trade and helps to ensure that producers in poor countries get a fair deal
• Fairtrade helps ensure that producers in poor countries get a fair deal
• Debt relief


  Helps poor countries invest in development projects, such as infrastructure, and provide services like education
• Microfinance


  Small-scale financial support to help individuals or families start up small businesses
• The Grameen Bank in Bangladesh

  • Lent US$200 to village women to buy mobile phones