General Reviewer

• Homeostasis


  The maintenance of a variable around an ideal normal value or set point
• Feedback Mechanism


  A physiological loop that brings the body either toward or away from the normal, steady state
• Basic Components of Control Mechanisms

  • Receptor
  • Control center
  • Effector
• Negative feedback


  The response diminishes the original stimulus
• Negative feedback


  • Blood glucose concentrations rise after a sugary meal, insulin is released and it speeds up the transport of glucose out of the blood and into selected tissues, blood glucose concentrations decrease
  • Exercise creates metabolic heat which raises the body temperature, cooling mechanisms such as vasodilation and sweating begin, body temperature falls
• Positive feedback


  The response enhances the original stimulus
• Positive feedback


  • Blood Clotting - When a wound causes bleeding, substances released by the injured blood vessel wall begin the process of blood clotting, platelets in the blood start to cling to the injured site and release chemicals that attract additional platelets, the positive feedback accelerates the process of clotting until the clot is large enough to stop the bleeding
• Planes


  • Frontal plane/ coronal plane
  • Transverse/horizontal plane
  • Sagittal plane
• Layers of Skin


  • Epidermis
  • Dermis
  • Hypodermis (Subcutaneous tissue)
• Accessory Organs


  • Hair
  • Sebaceous Glands
  • Eccrine sweat gland
  • Apocrine sweat gland
  • Nail
• Axial Skeleton


  • Cranium (skull)
  • Mandible (jawbone)
  • Sternum (breastbone)
  • Ribs
  • Vertebral column
  • Sacrum
  • Coccyx (tailbone)
• Appendicular Skeleton


  • Upper limbs
  • Lower limbs
  • Girdles
• Types of Muscle Tissues

  • Skeletal muscle
  • Cardiac muscle
  • Smooth muscle
• Stages of Digestion


  • Ingestion
  • Digestion
  • Propulsion
  • Absorption
  • Elimination
• Anatomy of the Digestive System

  • Oral cavity
  • Pharynx
  • Esophagus
  • Stomach
  • Small intestine
  • Large intestine
  • Anus
  • Salivary glands
  • Liver
  • Pancreas
• Flow of respiratory passages

  • Nasal cavity
  • Pharynx
  • Larynx
  • Trachea
  • Bronchi
  • Bronchioles
  • Lungs
• Nasal Cavity


  Lined with pseudostratified columnar epithelial cells containing cilia and many mucus-producing goblet cells, contains conchae which increases the surface area and cause air to churn, paranasal sinuses where air is moisten then warmed, and cilia which cleans air by filtering out foreign bodies
• Larynx


  Conducts air into the lower respiratory tract and produces sounds, the vestibular folds can prevent air, food, and liquids from passing into the larynx, the vocal folds (true vocal cords) vibrate and produce sounds when air passes through the larynx
• Trachea


  Connects the larynx to the main bronchi, lined with pseudostratified columnar epithelium which contains numerous cilia and goblet cells that propel mucus and foreign particles out of the trachea, the main bronchi branch many times to form the bronchioles
• Lungs


  The principal organs of respiration, the respiratory membrane is where gas exchange between the air and blood takes place, alveoli are the small air sacs that facilitate the diffusion of gases
• Breathing Process


  1. During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and moves downward, the rib muscles contract and move upward increasing the volume of the chest cavity

  2. During exhalation, the diaphragm relaxes and moves upward, the rib muscles lowers, the pressure in the chest cavity is greater than atmospheric pressure, air is pushed out of the lungs
• Blood Components


  • Plasma
  • Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells)
  • Leukocytes (White Blood Cells)
  • Thrombocytes (Platelets)
• Blood Vessels


  • Arteries
  • Capillaries
  • Veins
• Heart


  Pumps blood in order for it to circulate throughout the body, the four-chambered heart allows complete separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood, the atria are the receiving chambers, the ventricles are the pumping chambers
• Heart Valves


  • Tricuspid valve
• Functions of the Lymphatic System

  • Maintains fluid levels in your body
  • Absorbs fats from the digestive tract
  • Protects your body against foreign invaders
  • Transports and removes waste products and abnormal cells from the lymph
• Anatomy of the Lymphatic System

  • Lymph nodes
  • Collecting ducts
• Lymphatic system


  Produces and releases lymphocytes (white blood cells) and other immune cells that monitor and then destroy foreign invaders, transports and removes waste products and abnormal cells from the lymph
• Immune system


  A body network of cells, tissues, and organs that work together to protect the body, immunity is the ability to resist damage from pathogens, harmful chemicals, and internal threats
• Immune system functions


  • Guard against disease and tissue damage, clean up damaged tissue, surveillance to identify and destroy abnormal body cells
• Immune cells


  • Distributed throughout the body but highly concentrated in blood and lymphatic tissue
• Innate immunity


  The first and second line of defense to keep pathogens out and non-specifically target foreign substances in the body
• Innate immunity - external defenses


  • Skin and mucous membranes, tears, saliva, and urine
• Inflammation


  A nonspecific response to tissue injury or foreign invasion, involving phagocytic cells and plasma proteins that can isolate, clean up and repair the area
• Inflammation components


  • Macrophages, mast cells/histamines, clotting factors, chemotaxis, monocytes, neutrophils
• Interferons


  Anti-viral proteins that help cells nonspecifically target and prevent viral replication, released from any body cell infected by a virus, reinforce immune responses generally
• Natural killer cells


  Specialized to nonspecifically detect and destroy virus infected cells and cancerous cells, release chemicals called perforins that lyse the cell membranes of targets
• Complement system


  A cascade of molecules released that ultimately kills infected cells by attacking cell membranes, forms a large channel that disrupts osmotic balance and causes cell to swell and burst
• Adaptive immunity


  A specific immunity for pathogens, its response improves for every encounter, exhibits specificity and memory
• Types of adaptive immunity

  • Cell-mediated immunity (T cells), antibody-mediated immunity (B cells)