Finals: 6, 8, 9

• Organic compounds


  Primarily consist of carbon and hydrogen atoms
• Test for carbon and hydrogen

  • Anhydrous CuSO4 = white color
  • CuSO4 + hydrated (Hydrous CuSO4) = blue
  • Carbon = CO2 (Carbon dioxide gas)
  • CO2 = lime water turns milky
• Chemical reaction process with presence of carbon

  CaCO3 (milky) is the product or precipitate
• Chemical reaction process with presence of hydrogen

  Water vapor
• Chemical reaction process with presence of hydrogen

  CuSO4 x 5H20 (Hydrous CuSO4,blue)
• Ferrox paper


  Prepared by soaking the filter paper in the ethanol containing equal amounts (1:1) of KCNS and Ferric Chloride
• Test for oxygen

  1. Liquid will dissolve the salt and show red to violet coloration if the compound contains oxygen or sulfur and nitrogen

  2. If the sample is solid, make a saturated solution of the compound in warm benzene or purified carbon tetrachloride
• Alcohol


  Gives a positive reaction on the test for oxygen
• Tests for sulfur (Lead Acetate)

  1. Results: Dark Coloration or Black

  2. Presence of sulfur as sulfide ion

  3. Acidifying agent: diluted acetic acid
• Thiols


  Give a positive reaction on the test for sulfurs
• Test for sulfur (Sodium Nitroprusside)

  1. Results: a deep red or purple color

  2. Indicates the presence of sulfide ion
• Tests for nitrogen (Lassaigne's Tests)

  1. Solution should be acidic

  2. Results: a blue coloration or precipitate known as Prussian blue

  3. Indicates the presence of nitrogen

  4. Acidifying agent: sulfuric acid
• Ethanamide


  Gives a positive reaction on the Lassaigne's Test
• Tests for nitrogen (Soda-Lime Test)

  1. Results: the change of color of the wet indicator paper as the mixture is heated

  2. Basicity or acidity
• Tests for halogens (Beilstein Test)

  1. Results: a blue-green flame

  2. Indicates the presence of chlorine, bromine or iodine
• Chloroform


  Gives a positive reaction on the Beilstein Test
• Tests for chlorine, bromine and iodide ions in the sodium fusion filtrate

  1. Results: a white to yellow cloud precipitate

  2. Indicates the presence of chloride, bromide or iodide

  3. Acidifying agent: diluted nitric acid
• Hydrocarbons


  • The simplest types of organic compounds, they only contain Carbons and Hydrogen
  • They may be either composed of single bonds (unsaturated) or multiple bonds
• Types of hydrocarbons

  • Aliphatic
  • Unsaturated aliphatic hydrocarbons
  • Aromatic hydrocarbon
• Aliphatic


  Saturated hydrocarbons include alkanes and cycloalkanes
• Unsaturated aliphatic hydrocarbons


  Consist of alkenes and alkynes and their cycle counterparts
• Aromatic hydrocarbon

  Exemplified by the benzene ring, a six-carbon ring with the double bonds arranged in alternating manner
• Hexane, Heptane and Cyclohexane are saturated hydrocarbons

  Cyclohexene is an unsaturated hydrocarbon

  Benzene and Toluene are aromatic hydrocarbons

  Highly Combustible
• Baeyer's test

  1. Test for active unsaturation

  2. Color will decolorized decolorization
• Test for aromaticity: Nitration

  1. Commonly used to distinguish between aromatic and non-aromatic hydrocarbons

  2. Yellow oily layer or droplet
• Basic oxidation


  Commonly used to distinguish between saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons

  It helps identify the presence of double or triple bonds in unsaturated hydrocarbons, as they are more readily oxidized than saturated hydrocarbons

  Toluene when oxidized yields to benzoic acid
• Acyclic


  Are those that do not form a closed loop or ring structure and can have straight or branched chains
• Cyclic


  Form one or more closed loops or rings and include compounds like cycloalkanes, cycloalkenes, and aromatic compounds like benzene
• Types of hydrocarbons based on structure

  • Acyclic
  • Cyclic
• Types of hydrocarbons based on saturation

  • Saturated
  • Unsaturated
  • Actively saturated
• Saturated hydrocarbons


  Have single bonds carbon atoms and they have a maximum number of hydrogen atoms

  Example: alkanes
• Unsaturated hydrocarbons


  Have at least one double or triple bond carbon atoms and fewer hydrogen

  Example: alkenes and alkynes
• Actively saturated hydrocarbons


  Have functional groups
• Aliphatic


  Have straight or branched chains of carbon atoms
• Aromatic


  Have a specific ring structure (aromatic ring) which consists of alternating double and single bonds
• Types of hydrocarbons based on structure

  • Aliphatic
  • Aromatic
• Baeyer's test

  Reaction: The unsaturated compound reacts with an alkaline solution of potassium permanganate (KMnO₄) to form a diol (glycol) product

  General Mechanism:

  The double bond of the unsaturated compound attacks the permanganate ion (MnO₄⁻), breaking the double bond and forming a cyclic manganate ester intermediate

  The intermediate undergoes hydrolysis in the presence of water to form a vicinal diol (glycol) and manganese dioxide (MnO₂)
• Bromine test

  Reaction: Bromine (Br₂) adds across the double bond of an alkene, forming a dibromoalkane product

  General Mechanism:

  The pi electrons of the double bond in the alkene attack one of the bromine atoms, breaking the Br-Br bond

  One bromine atom forms a bond with each carbon atom, resulting in a bromonium ion intermediate

  A bromide ion (Br⁻) attacks the bromonium ion, opening the ring and forming the dibromoalkane product
• Nitration

  Reaction: Aromatic compounds react with concentrated nitric acid (HNO₃) and sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) to introduce a nitro group (-NO₂) onto the aromatic ring

  General Mechanism:

  Sulfuric acid protonated nitric acid to produce a strong electrophile, the nitronium ion (NO₂⁺)

  The nitronium ion attacks the aromatic ring, forming a sigma complex intermediate

  The sigma complex loses a proton from sulfuric acid, regenerating the aromatic ring and forming the nitroaromatic product
• Number of carbon atoms

  Shorter chain hydrocarbons generally produce cleaner and less luminous flames, while longer chain hydrocarbons tend to produce more luminous flames with higher levels of soot