Older adults

• biological changes during ageing include cells becoming less efficient, contributing to tissue and organ decline, oxidative stress, DNA damage and decline in repair, and mitochondrial dysfunction
• physiological changes with ageing include skin changes causing wrinkles, bone density loss, muscle mass decline, cardiovascular health declining, and sensory decline
• cognitive changes during ageing include memory and learning declining, and neurodegenerative diseases,
• lifestyle changes in ageing include nutrition, physical activity, and sleep
• ageing causes various physiological changes that can significantly impact nutritional status
• ageing causes a reduced secretion of digestive enzymes and stomach acid which impairs the digestion and absorption of nutrients
• ageing causes slower gastrointestinal motility including slowed peristalsis which leads to constipation and can potentially reduce appetite and food intake
• ageing causes changes in the composition of gut bacteria which affects digestion and nutrient absorption and may influence immune function
• ageing causes physiological changes to the digestive system such as decreased digestive enzyme production, slower gastrointestinal motility, and altered gut microbiota
• ageing causes oral health issues such as tooth loss and reduced saliva production
• tooth loss can make chewing more difficult and therefore leading to less consumption of foods which can cause weight loss and nutrient deficiencies
• reduced saliva production in older adults can hinder chewing and swallowing and reduce taste sensations, further impacting nutritional intake
• ageing causes sensory changes such as taste and smell decline which can lead to decreased appetite and reduced enjoyment of food, potentially resulting in lower food intake and inadequate nutrition consumption
• sensory changes in ageing can cause food insecurity by affecting older adults ability to shop, prepare, and eat food safely and effectively, leading to reliance on less nutritious and convenient food options
• metabolic and hormonal changes occur during ageing such as reduced BMR and changes in hormone levels
• a decline in muscle mass and physical activity when ageing, lowers energy requirements making it easier to consume excess calories and gain weight or conversely, making it more challenging to consume enough nutrient-dense foods
• ageing causing alterations in hormones such as hormones activity diminishing and increased sensitivity to the satiating effect of CCK leading to anorexia
• CCK is the main gastrointestinal hormone that plays a key role in food intake
• CCK is involved with appetite by increasing the sensations of fullness, CCK increases the release of fluid and enzymes from the pancreas to break down fats, proteins and carbohydrates
• ageing causes body compositions changes such as loss of muscle mass (sarcopenia) and increased fat mass
• muscle mass and strength decline with age, which can reduce physical activity levels and increase the risk of falls. adequate protein intake becomes crucial to mitigate muscle loss
• a relative increase in body fat, especially visceral fat, can elevate the risk of metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes and CVD
• ageing causes bone density loss (osteoporosis), decreased bone mineral density increases the risk of fractures. adequate intake of calcium, and vitamin D is essential for bone support
• older adults often have diminished sense of third, increasing the risk of dehydration, which can affect cognitive function and kidney health
• ageing causes kidney function decline which impairs the body's ability to concentrate urine and maintain fluid and electrolyte balance
• the ageing immune system becomes less effective, increasing susceptibility to infections and illnesses
• living alone can reduce motivation to prepare and consume balanced meals
• sarcopenia is the age-related loss of muscle mass, strength and function
• sarcopenia is characterised by muscle mass decline, decreased muscle strength, and impaired physical performance
• causes of sarcopenia include ageing, physical inactivity, poor nutrition, chronic illness and inflammation
• ageing causes sarcopenia due to aging causing hormonal changes, decreased physical activity and diminished regenerative capacity of muscles
• physical inactivity causes sarcopenia due to sedentary lifestyle accelerating muscle loss
• poor nutrition can cause sarcopenia due to inadequate protein and calorie intake exacerbating muscle wasting
• chronic illnesses such as diabetes can cause sarcopenia due to diabetes contributing to muscle deterioration
• inflammation can cause sarcopenia due to it promoting muscle breakdown
• insulin resistance is involved in one of several mechanisms of sarcopenia due to insulin being an anabolic hormone, which stimulates protein synthesis including the synthesis of muscle. the process of protein degradation and synthesis constantly repeats in skeletal muscle. defects in insulin signalling can lead to reduced muscle synthesis
• age related changes affecting sarcopenia include reduction in anabolic hormones such as testosterone, estrogen, growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor hormone, along with increased inflammatory activity and oxidative stress which contribute to muscle catabolism
• lifestyle habits affecting sarcopenia include impaired nutrition, reduced physical activity, alcohol consumption and smoking
• smoking impairs muscle protein synthesis by increasing expression of myostatin, myostatin is a protein that inhibits myogenesis by inactivating protein kinase B, a promoter of protein synthesis, resulting in an inhibited muscle growth
• genetic factors may also contribute to the progression of sarcopenia due to muscle mass and strength being multifactorial traits that vary among individuals