Fckng Quiz Cog Psych

• Problem


  Occurs when there is an obstacle between a present state and a goal and it is not immediately obvious how to get around the obstacle
• Types of problems


  • Well-defined problems
  • Ill-defined problems or Ill-structured problems
• Well-defined problems


  • Usually have a correct answer; certain procedures, when applied correctly, will lead to a solution
• Ill-defined problems or Ill-structured problemsDo not necessarily have one "correct" answer, and the path to their solution is often unclear
• Restructuring


  The process of changing the problem's representation
• Insight


  Distinctive and sometimes seemingly sudden understanding of a problem or of a strategy that aids in solving the problem
• Productive (insightful) thinking involves insights and creativity
• Reproductive thinking is based on existing associations involving what is already known
• When given routine problems, problem solvers show remarkable accuracy in their ability to predict their own success in solving a problem prior to any attempt to solve it
• When given insight problems, problem solvers show poor ability to predict their own success before trying to solve the problems
• Fixation


  People's tendency to focus on a specific characteristic of the problem that keeps them from arriving at a solution
• Functional fixedness


  Restricting the use of an object to its familiar functions
• Mental set


  A frame of mind involving an existing model for representing a problem, a problem context, or a procedure for problem solving
• Stereotypes


  Beliefs that members of a social group tend more or less uniformly to have particular types of characteristics
• Stereotype threat


  Being aware of stereotypes about their group can also limit people's performance when they expect to be evaluated
• Negative transfer


  Occurs when solving an earlier problem makes it harder to solve a later one
• Positive transfer


  Occurs when the solution of an earlier problem makes it easier to solve a new problem
• Analogical problem solving


  When people think back to other problems they have encountered and solved, they may ask themselves whether the new problem is somehow similar to other ones they previously solved
• Transparency


  The opposite phenomenon in which people see analogies where they do not exist because of similarity of content
• Incubation


  Putting the problem aside for a while without consciously thinking about it
• Newell and Simon's approach


  • Saw problems in terms of an initial state—conditions at the beginning of the problem—and a goal state—the solution of the problem
• The Tower of Hanoi problem is an example of Newell and Simon's approach
• Information-Processing Approach


  Describes problem solving as a process that involves search
• Newell and Simon's Approach


  • Problems are seen in terms of an initial state and a goal state
  • Operators are actions that take the problem from one state to another
• Problem space


  The initial state, goal state, and all the possible intermediate states for a particular problem
• Means-end analysis


  A strategy to direct the search of the problem space by creating subgoals - intermediate states that are closer to the goal
• The acrobat problem can be solved in 5 moves, but the reverse acrobat problem (where a smaller acrobat cannot stand on a larger one) takes much longer to solve
• Mutilated Checkerboard Problem


  A checkerboard can be completely covered by 32 dominos, but if two corners are removed it cannot be covered
• Think-aloud protocol


  Participants are asked to verbalize their thoughts while solving a problem, to determine what information they are attending to
• The Russian Marriage Problem is related to the mutilated checkerboard problem, as noticing the connection between the couples and the alternating squares can help solve the checkerboard problem
• The problem-solving cycle


  • Problem identification
  • Problem definition and representation
  • Strategy formulation
  • Organization of information
  • Resource allocation
  • Monitoring
  • Evaluation
• Divergent thinking


  Trying to generate a diverse assortment of possible alternative solutions to a problem
• Convergent thinking


  Narrowing down multiple possibilities to converge on a single best answer
• Creativity


  The process of innovative thinking, generating new ideas or creating connections between existing ideas to formulate new ideas or thoughts
• Creativity is frequently connected with divergent thinking, which is open-ended and involves many possible solutions, in contrast to convergent thinking which has a specific solution
• Fixation, where people focus on a particular characteristic of a problem that hinders them from finding a solution, can impede creativity
• Design fixation


  Analogous to the Gestalt psychologists' demonstrations of how fixation can inhibit problem solving
• Creativity


  Involves having unique insights and also being able to follow through to transform that insight into a product be it a work of art, an idea for a scientific experiment, or a commercially viable invention
• Finke found that people were more likely to come up with creative uses for preinventive objects that they had created themselves than for objects created by other people
• Creativity


  The process of producing something that is both original and worthwhile