12 - 1st Semester

• Methods of separating components of mixtures

  1. Distillation

  2. Filtration

  3. Chromatography

  4. Evaporation

  5. Crystallization
• Basic Law of Chemical Matter

  The law that states that the composition of a pure chemical compound is always the same, regardless of its source or method of preparation
• Stable and unstable isotopes

  Stable isotopes do not undergo radioactive decay, unstable isotopes do undergo radioactive decay
• Writing the chemical formula

  1. Determine the elements

  2. Determine the subscripts

  3. Arrange the elements
• Naming compounds


  Use the name of the cation followed by the name of the anion
• Balancing chemical equations


  1. Identify reactants and products

  2. Balance atoms of each element

  3. Check that the number of atoms of each element is the same on both sides
• Interpreting balanced chemical equations

  1. Identify reactants and products

  2. Determine the mole-to-mole relationships

  3. Determine the mass-to-mass relationships
• Mole-to-mole relationships in balanced chemical equations

  Use mole ratios to determine the amounts of reactants and products
• Main energy level, sublevel, orbitals

  Main energy levels, sublevels within each main level, and orbitals within each sublevel
• Aufbau Principle


  Electrons fill the lowest available energy levels first
• Pauli's Exclusion Principle


  No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of quantum numbers
• Lewis Structure or Electron-Dot Diagram

  1. Draw the element symbol

  2. Add valence electrons as dots around the symbol

  3. Arrange the dots to show bonding and lone pairs
• Paramagnetism and diamagnetism


  Paramagnetism - atoms/molecules have unpaired electrons and are attracted to magnetic fields

  Diamagnetism - atoms/molecules have all electrons paired and are not attracted to magnetic fields
• Forming an ion


  Lose or gain electrons to achieve a stable electron configuration
• Ionic bonding


  Formed by the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions
• Covalent bonding


  Formed by the sharing of electrons between atoms to achieve stable electron configurations
• Types of hydrocarbons


  • Alkanes
  • Alkenes
  • Alkynes
• Alkyl Halides
• Carboxylic acid
• Conversion of units


  1. Identify the units

  2. Use conversion factors to convert between units
• Significant figures


  The number of digits in a measurement that are known with certainty
• Scientific notations


  A way to express very large or very small numbers using powers of 10
• Accuracy and precision


  Accuracy refers to how close a measurement is to the true value, precision refers to how close repeated measurements are to each other
• Physical quantities


  Measurable properties of an object or system
• Scalar and vector quantities

  Scalar quantities have only magnitude, vector quantities have both magnitude and direction
• Vector representation


  1. Draw the vector with an arrow

  2. Label the magnitude and direction
• Distance (d)
• Displacement (d)


  The change in position of an object
• Speed and velocity


  Speed is the rate of change of position, velocity is the rate of change of position with direction
• Acceleration


  The rate of change of velocity
• Constant velocity vs. Acceleration
• Constant velocity vs. Changing Velocity
• Velocity-time graph & acceleration-time graph
• Projectile motion (2-D)
• Centripetal Force


  The force that causes an object to move in a circular path
• Centrifugal or centripetal force

  Centrifugal force is an apparent force, centripetal force is the real force causing circular motion
• Tangential velocity


  The velocity of an object moving in a circular path, perpendicular to the radius
• Centripetal acceleration


  The acceleration directed toward the center of the circular path
• Tangential acceleration


  The acceleration in the direction of the tangent to the circular path
• Radius of curvature


  The radius of the circular path