Italy Topic 4

• Mussolini's foreign policy aims before 1935

  Regain Italy's pride and assert its power on world stage, become a world power, assert power in the Mediterranean, transform Italy into a militant aggressive race, achieve expansion of living space through irredentism
• Mussolini was mainly successful in achieving his foreign policy goals between 1922 and 1935
• Corfu Incident 1923

  • Invaded Corfu after murder of Italian General Tellini, demanded 50 million lire and attended funeral service in Athens, LofN demanded they end the occupation, success domestically as it showed Mussolini as a dynamic leader willing to engage in decisive action and stand up for Italian pride, opposition from LofN showed Mussolini's weaker position compared to Britain and France, led to Mussolini preferring negotiation over aggression in the 1920s
• 1924 Yugoslavia


  • Recognised Fiume as part of Italy, significant due to importance of Fiume, very symbolic
• 1925 Locarno Treaty


  • Germany accepted pre-war borders, Mussolini's role in negotiations seen as solving European peace, involvement indicated he was accepted as an equal to great powers, increasing his popularity
• Pacification of Libya


  • Continued the liberal government's brutal war against Libyan rebellion, used tactics like poison gas, 1/3 of Libya's population killed or starved to death, put down rebellion in 1932, one of the first examples of the clear brutality of the fascist regime
• Mussolini's foreign policy aims didn't change but the means to achieve them did
• Mussolini's relations with Britain and France


  Generally good, willing to work together on treaties like Locarno, but tensions over issues like naval control of the Mediterranean and Mussolini's complaints about anti-fascist exiles in France
• Mussolini's relations with Germany

  Changed between Weimar and Nazi period, initially contemptuous towards socialists and pacifists, gave support to nationalist groups undermining Weimar, feared Anschluss, later open in praise of Hitler and they exchanged letters, aligned on Spanish Civil War
• Italy was economically dependent on the British government and financial markets, the revaluation of the lira could only be achieved with funding from the British government
• Mussolini's relations with Britain


  Ambiguous until 1935, seen as a rival to Italian power in the Mediterranean and its imperial aims in Africa, tension over Tunisia
• Mussolini's relations with France

  Tension over the presence of anti-fascist exiles in France and Mussolini's fear of Anschluss, led to seeking protection in the Four Powers Pact 1933 which was never ratified
• Stresa Front 1935


  • Mussolini met with Britain and France to discuss Hitler's announcement of German rearmament, they issued a resolution stating their desire for peace and commitment to the League of Nations, Mussolini claimed an implicit agreement to support Italy's imperialist goals in Africa in return for anti-German action, but the resolution did not apply to Africa
• Invasion of Abyssinia 1935


  • Quick initial success but then progress slowed, Mussolini proclaimed victory on May 9th, League of Nations only placed limited sanctions, used weakness of League as propaganda, brutal tactics including aerial bombardment and use of poison gas, 500,000 Abyssinians killed, only short-term success as Abyssinia never fully occupied, economic costs were high with lira devaluation and budget deficits
• Mussolini's involvement in the Spanish Civil War

  • Sent 50,000 soldiers and 400 fighter planes to support General Franco, prevented Italy aligning with Western powers, aligned with Germany instead, gave Italy a potential strategic ally in the Mediterranean, but territorial ambitions came to nothing, military was weakened, intervention was unpopular with Italian people, led to economic dependency on Nazi Germany
• Breakdown of the Stresa Front and move towards Germany

  Caused by the Hoare-Laval Pact over Abyssinia which angered Britain, Italian submarines attacking neutral shipping in the Mediterranean, the Gentleman's Agreement of 1937 which Mussolini ignored
• Mussolini's alignment with Germany


  Fighting on the same side in the Spanish Civil War, signing the Rome-Berlin Axis in 1936, anti-Comintern pact in 1937, withdrawal from the League of Nations, acceptance of the Anschluss in 1938, subservience to Hitler at the Munich Conference
• Domestic tensions impacting Mussolini's dictatorship

  • High military spending squeezing middle class incomes, unpopular policies like special taxes, worsening diet due to autarky, economic reliance on Germany leading to unpopular worker transfers, but Mussolini still popular with a generation that had grown up with no other leader
• Between 1935 and 1939 military spending accounted for around 80% of the massive increase in the state deficit and squeeze on middle class incomes and saving to government expenditure was highlight unpopular. E.g. in the Spanish Civil war special taxes.
• Mussolini still popular even if fascist party was not. By 1939 there was a whole generation of Italians who had grown up with no other leader expect Mussolini.- so for many there was no alternative.
• The Quest for Autarky meant many consumer products became more expensive as produced in Italy not from international markets- link to Battle for Grain. Worsening diet.
• Economy worryingly reliant on Germany and heightened by 1939 new commercial treaty signed between them. This led to very unpopular policy of transfer of Italian workers to Germany. Half a million by 1945. They were treated poorly. The policy contradicted Mussolini's speeches which asserted Italian workers should remain in Italy and he respects them.-Most HATED policy. And confirmed his weakness to Hitler.
• Accentuated by Anschluss and growing relationship between Italy and Germany.
• 1938 Reform of customs Antisemitic policy was very unpopular. Goose step and salute seen as ridiculous. ( The cult of il duce was becoming harder to sustain as he grew older and no longer youthful and dynamic)
• Pact of Steel


  • Right Decision in signing Pact
  • Wrong decision
  • Signalled the growing strength of the relationship between Italy and Germany.
• Albania invasion had shown the weakness of the Italian army- troops unorganised, not trained for the weapons, poor coordination between army, navy and airforce. Main consequence of invasion was showing the problems with the Italian military- it had no bearing on European affairs.
• With full support of Germany- he could fulfil desires in the Mediterranean. Particularly as it would bring him into greater conflict with Britain and France.
• Article 3- Italy was committed to go to war if Germany chose to go to war. 'with all its military forces on land, on sea and on air'.
• Ribbentrop had reassured Ciano that they would not go to war until at least 1943. However despite being signed in May, in August Ribbentrop informed them that they were going to attack Poland. =Italy trapped!
• Invasion of Albania: 1939. Invasion persuaded by Ciano in compensation for Germany taking Austria. For Mussolini to prove that he is a dynamic leader to the Italian people. And Albania could assist the economy.
• Pact of Steel 1939

  Set out military and economic cooperation between the two countries and permanent political consultation.
• Italian Neutrality


  • Reason for joining with Germany in War 1940
  • Reasons for hesitation
• Joining Britian and France would lead to German attack and Italy would have difficulty defending.
• Nazi-Soviet Pact 1939. Agreement of non-aggression and secret to divide Eastern Europe. For Italy this contravened the Anti-Comintern Pact.
• Did not want to announce 'neutrality'- as fascism linked to military strength and aggression. Fascism 'born on the battle fields of WW1'. Intrinsically linked to war.
• Germany were looking like they were winning the war. Badoglio informed them that Germany would be victorious by September.
• If they did Italy would have an extremely powerful German empire on its borders that could easily invade them.
• Advised by Ciano and other military advisers (and entire fascist grand council and Vatican and King) to not get involved in another costly war.
• Did not want to take the same action as the weak liberal government. Given his anger at the non-interventionist. It would be shameful to wait on the sidelines.
• To gain any benefits- Italy required a 'few thousand dead to be able to attend the peace conference as a belligerent'.