Revolutionary Europe (1789-1815)

• Who were the ”three estates”?: Nobles, clergy and commoners
• The French Revolution was driven by deep social and economic inequalities in pre-revolutionary France
• Estates in pre-revolutionary France

  • First Estate (0.5% of population)
  • Second Estate (1.5% of population)
  • Third Estate (98% of population)
• First Estate


  Catholic clergy who owned about 5-10% of the land and were tax-exempt. After the revolution, their lands were sold and they were given state salaries.
• Second Estate


  The nobility, who were also largely tax-exempt before the revolution. While some nobles were poorer than the Third Estate, they retained their titles and privileges after the revolution, except for those executed during the Terror. The numerous nobles who were decapitated lost their titles, but the rest kept them, though they were now mostly symbolic.
• Third Estate


  Commoners, consisting of about 80% farmers, as well as a rising bourgeoisie that was sometimes richer than the nobles. The Third Estate wanted more political power and lower taxes.
• After the Revolution, the clergy and nobility lost their tax exemptions and privileges, while the commoners gained more rights and representation.
• The French Revolution can be divided into three main phases:

  • Moderate Stage (1789-1792)
  • The radical stage (1793-1794)
  • The directory (1795-1799)
• Moderate Stage (1789-1792)

  1. Constitution: Created in 1791, aiming to limit the monarchy's power.
  2. State-Church Relations: Church lands were sold to repay debt, and an oath of loyalty was added to the civil constitution.
  3. Political Unrest: Declaration of war on Austria and Prussia, and growing conflict between republicans and monarchists.
  4. Outcome:

  • Execution of Louis XVI: In 1793, marking the end of monarchist rule.
  • Creation of the Republic: The monarchy was replaced by a republic.
• Radical Stage (1793-1794)

  1. War and Expansion: France went to war with all its neighbors, seeking to expand its borders.
  2. Conflict among Elites: Girondins and Montagnards clashed, leading to political instability.
  3. Reign of Terror: Opponents and critics were convicted of treason and executed without fair trial.
  4. Outcome:

  • Peace with Austria: Achieved by July 1794.
  • Annexation of Belgium: Still in place.
  • Financial Crisis: State finances were in disarray.
  • Robespierre's Downfall: He was denounced and executed, marking a shift towards moderate republicanism.
• Directory Phase (1795-1799)

  1. Election System: Created with two legislative councils and a 5 member executive (The Directory).
  2. Legitimacy Issues: Difficulty in retaining legitimacy due to disagreements between left-right and Jacobins-Royalists.
  3. Coup de Brumaire: On November 9-10, 1799, the executive was strengthened.
  4. Napoleon's Rise: Napoleon Bonaparte, Abbé Sieyès, and Roger Ducos became consuls, with Napoleon gaining significant power.
  5. Outcome:

  • End of the French Revolution: Napoleon's rise marked the end of the revolution and the beginning of his imperial rule (1800-1815).
•  the role of the French provincial parliaments was to represent the interests of the local population and to provide a forum for debate and discussion
• French Parliaments

  1. Origin: Developed from the King's council since the 15th century.
  2. Composition: Consisted of 1,100 judges, known as "nobles of the robe," across 13 parlements.
  3. Role:

  • Judicial: Functioned as provincial courts of appeal, with power to appeal edicts of the Crown.
  • Taxation: Primarily worked to resist taxes, which benefited the aristocracy.
  • Resistance to Absolutism: Played a significant role in resisting absolutist rule, especially during the 18th century.
• 1. Conflict between the French Parliaments with the Crown King:

  • Louis XIV: Weakened the power of the right to appeal and banned "unrespectful appeals."
  • Louis XV: In 1766, reminded parliaments of his divine right to rule, diminishing their authority.
  • Louis XVI: Restored the right to appeal, leading to growing use and influence.
• Was the revolution an anti-royalist movement? : Yes

  The Revolution aimed to abolish the monarchy and establish a republic in France. The National Assembly, which was the governing body during the Revolution, passed several laws and decrees that effectively ended the monarchy and the feudal system. The most significant of these was the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, which established the principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity and declared that all men are born free and equal.
• Main legacies of French revolution:

  1. Declaration of Rights: everyone is equal and has the right to be free and say what tehy think
  2. Inspiring Other Revolutions: inspired other countries to have their own revolutions to make their countries more democratic and fair.
• Main legacies of French revolution:

  1. Declaration of Rights
  2. Inspiring other revolution
• Main legacies of French rev consists of :

  1. Shaping Modern Politics:The French Rev helped create modern political ideas like nationalism, liberalism, socialism, communism.
  2. Capital Punishment: introduced the guillotine as a humane method of execution
  3. Liberty, Equality, Fraternity: The slogan of the French Republic
  4. Separation of Church and State: The Revolutionaries wanted to separate religion from the government
• Factors that caused the French Revolution

  • Economic Inequality
  • Absolutism
  • Enlightenment Ideas
  • Food Shortages
  • American Revolution
• Economic Inequality

  The wealthy clergy and nobility enjoyed significant privileges and exemptions from taxation, while the commoners were heavily taxed and struggled to make ends meet
• Absolutism

  King Louis XVI had near absolute power, which led to resentment among the people
• Enlightenment Ideas

  New ideas about liberty, equality, and democracy were spreading, inspiring people to demand change
• Food Shortages

  Food shortages and high bread prices led to widespread discontent and anger
• American Revolution


  Inspired the French Revolution
• The Congress of Vienna was held


  1814-1815
• The Congress of Vienna

  • It was a meeting of European powers that aimed to establish a lasting peace after the Napoleonic Wars
  • Its main goals were: Restoring the balance of power in Europe by resizing the major powers so they could balance each other and remain at peace, Enclosing France's borders to prevent future French aggression, Restoring conservative monarchies that Napoleon had overthrown and opposing revolutionary movements and nationalism
• Powers represented at the Congress of Vienna

  • Britain
  • Austria
  • Prussia
  • Russia
  • France
• What the Congress of Vienna did

  1. Redrew the map of Europe

  2. Created a new system of alliances known as the Concert of Europe to maintain the balance of power
• The Congress settlement provided a framework for European international politics that largely held until the outbreak of World War I in 1914
• The Concert of Europe broke down a few decades later as disputes were resolved with diminishing effectiveness
• Treaty of Paris


  Signed on November 20, 1815, imposed significant territorial losses on France, but did not include harsh penalties or reparations. Aimed to restore the pre-Napoleonic borders and establish a lasting peace.
• Reasons France was not punished more severely by the victors of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815


  • Balance of Power: The victors, particularly Britain, wanted to maintain a balance of power in Europe. Punishing France excessively could have led to a power vacuum, allowing other nations to rise and potentially destabilize the continent.
  • Fear of Revolution: The victors were aware of the French Revolution's impact and the potential for another revolution if France was treated too harshly. They wanted to avoid sparking a new wave of revolutionary fervor.
  • Napoleon's Exile: Napoleon was exiled to the island of Elba, effectively removing him from power and preventing further conflict. This allowed the victors to focus on rebuilding and stabilizing Europe rather than punishing France.
  • International Cooperation: The Congress of Vienna, held in 1814-1815, aimed to establish a lasting peace by creating a system of alliances and maintaining the balance of power. This cooperation among the major powers prevented any one nation from dominating the others and allowed for a more peaceful resolution.
• Why do we call the architects of the ”Congress of Vienna” conservatives and not reactionaries?

  Architects of the Congress of Vienna aimed to preserve the principles of monarchy, aristocracy, and established institutions, believing that stability and order were crucial for the well-being of society.

  -> There were no radical changes and architects were driven by a desire to maintain a balance of power among European nations.
• The main political impact of the 1848 revolutions was a significant step towards democratization, despite conservation power won:

  • Consolidation of Parliament's Role: shift towards greater representation and accountability.
  • Equality and Abolition of Feudal Rights: led to the abolition of self-dom and seigneurial rights in central Europe
  • Unprecedented Political Participation: people from every states, lives engage in politics
  • Extension of Voting Rights: greater political inclusion.
• Main Patterns of Suffrage Extension


  • Gradual Extension
  • Property Qualifications
  • Income Qualifications
  • Literacy Qualifications
  • Age Qualifications
  • Universal Male Suffrage
• Gradual Extension

  • Suffrage was gradually extended to more people over time, with the right to vote initially being granted to a small group of wealthy property owners
• Property Qualifications

  • Property qualifications were used to restrict the right to vote, with only those who owned a certain amount of property being allowed to participate in elections
• Income Qualifications

  • Income qualifications were also used to restrict the right to vote, with only those who earned a certain amount of income being allowed to participate in elections
• Literacy Qualifications

  • Literacy qualifications were used to restrict the right to vote, with only those who could read and write being allowed to participate in elections
• Age Qualifications

  • Age qualifications were used to restrict the right to vote, with only those who were a certain age being allowed to participate in elections