Finals reviewer

• Learning refers to the process by which experiences change our nervous system and hence our behavior. We refer to these changes as memories.

  Nature of Learning
• Ability to learn to recognize stimuli that have been perceived before (ability to identify and categorize objects).

  Perceptual learning
• Ability to learn to perform a particular behavior when a particular stimulus is present. Learning to automatically make a response in the presence of a particular stimulus; includes classical and instrumental conditioning.

  Stimulus-response learning
• A process of acquiring a skill by the learner through practice and assimilation.

  Motor learning
• A complex form of learning that involves the relations among individual stimuli, including spatial learning, episodic learning, and observational learning.

  Relational learning
• • Potentiate means to strengthen, to make more potent.
  • Is a cellular process in the brain that underlies learning and memory.
  • In the hippocampal formation.

  Long-term potentiation
• Forebrain structure of the temporal lobe, constituting an important part of the limbic system.

  Hippocampal formation
• An evoked potential that represents the EPSPs of the population of neurons.

  Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)
• Long-term potentiation in which consumers stimulation of weak and strong synapse to a given neuron strengthens the weak one.

  Associative long-term potentiation
• a Russian physiologist, discovered classical conditioning (also known as Pavlovian or responder conditioning.)

  Ivan Pavlov
• Travel across synapses to the other neurons or to target cells, stimulating or inhibiting signals and responses.

  Neurotransmitters
• Receive sensory information from all regions of the cerebral cortex, and frontal lobes.

  Basal ganglia
• To make a response that provides favorable outcomes.

  Reinforcement
• A fiber bundle that runs in a rostral-caudal direction through the basal forebrain and lateral hypothalamus, electrical stimulation of these axons is reinforcing.

  Medial Forebrain Bundle (MFB)
• Group of dopaminergic neurons in the ventral midbrain whose axons form the mesolimbic and mesocortical system.

  Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA)
• Nucleus of the basal forebrain near the septum; receives dopaminergic – secreting terminal buttons from neurons of the ventral tegmental area and is thought to be involved in reinforcement and attention.

  Nucleus Accumbens
• Is the command of the body responsible for everything we do think and feel and consisting of the brain and spinal cord.

  Central nervous system
• A small seahorse shape structure located deep within the temporal lobe of the brain.

  Hippocampus
• The specialization of functions between the left and right hemispheres of the brain.

  Lateralization
• Left side of the brain primarily handles language tasks like speaking and understanding for most people.

  Left hemisphere dominance
• These are specific regions in the left hemisphere responsible for speech production (Broca’s area) and language comprehension (Wernicke‘s area).

  Broca's & Wernicke's Areas
• dominates language functions, the right hemisphere assists in areas like tone and some language meanings.

  Left hemisphere
• A region in the frontal lobe of the dominant hemisphere, usually the left, of the brain with functions linked to speech production.

  Broca's area
• This refers to a patient’s difficulty in using grammatical constructions, comprehending, properly employing grammatical devices such as verb endings and word order.

  Agrammatism
• “without name” it refers to a word-finding difficulty.

  Anomia
• Patients mispronounce words or often altering the sequence of sounds.

  Articulation difficulty
• It is a poor speech comprehension and production of meaningless speech.

  Wernicke's aphasia
• Damage to the left temporal lobe. People with this syndrome are not deaf, they just can’t understand speech.

  Pure word deafness
• This disorder can repeat what other people say to them; therefore they can recognize words but cannot comprehend the words they repeated or heard.

  Transcortical sensory aphasia
• Also known as agnosic alexia or alexia without agraphia or pure word blindness.

  Pure alexia
• A learning difficulty that primarily affects the skills involved in accurate and fluent word reading and spelling.

  Dyslexia
• Is a deficit in whole-word reading, usually caused by a lesion of the left lateral temporal lobe. Difficulty in recognizing whole words by sight, particularly irregularly spelled words.

  Surface dyslexia
• Is a specific subtype of dyslexia characterized by difficulty in decoding words phonetically, particularly in sounding out unfamiliar words or nonwords.

  Phonological dyslexia
• Can read words aloud without understanding them.

  Direct dyslexia
• Is a type of writing disorder where individuals have difficulty with the phonological aspects of writing.

  Phonological dysgraphia
• Characterized by difficulties with the visual aspects of writing.

  Orthographic dysgraphia
• A type of writing disorder where individuals have difficulty with the semantic aspects of writing.

  Semantic dysgraphia
• The largest lobes in the human brain.

  Frontal lobe
• Is an abnormal mass or growth of tissue that forms when cells divide and grow uncontrollably.

  Tumor
• Noncancerous Tumor and do not spread to other parts of the body.

  Benign