earth science

• Isolated system


  A system that does not allow matter and energy to leave or enter
• Closed system


  A system that will enable energy to enter and leave but does not allow the matter to go
• Open system


  A system that will enable both energy and matter to enter and leave
• The Earth is a closed system where there is only an exchange of heat and energy but no exchange of matter
• Earth's subsystems


  • Geosphere (land)
  • Atmosphere (air)
  • Hydrosphere (water)
  • Biosphere (living organisms)
• Geosphere


  • Contains all the rocks, minerals, and ground found on and in Earth
  • Includes the crust, mantle, and core
• Crust


  The thinnest layer of the Earth, further divided into continental and oceanic crust
• Mantle


  The thickest layer of the Earth, comprising hot, dense rocks, with convection currents that move the plates
• Core


  The hottest layer located at the center of the Earth, consisting of solid and molten metals
• About 200 million years ago, the continents were joined together in a supercontinent called Pangaea
• The plate tectonic theory proposes that the lithosphere is divided into major plates resting upon the asthenosphere, with the mechanism of movement related to convection currents in the mantle
• The lithosphere is also driven by erosion, weathering, transport, tectonic forces, and volcanic activity, resulting in landforms
• Atmosphere


  A gaseous envelope held by gravity that surrounds the Earth, composed of nitrogen, oxygen, argon, and trace greenhouse gases
• The Atmosphere receives energy from the Sun, trapping and absorbing some heat and energy while reflecting some into space, and protects the Earth from harmful radiation
• Hydrosphere


  Includes all the liquid, gaseous, and solid water on the planet Earth, consisting of oceans, seas, ice, glaciers, lakes, rivers, streams, atmospheric moisture, and groundwater
• Water is essential for the existence and maintenance of life on Earth, and the Hydrosphere is driven by the water cycle processes
• Biosphere


  Contains all the living organisms that inhabit the Earth, including plants, animals, microorganisms, and humans, forming communities and ecosystems
• The Biosphere is closely related to the other subsystems of the Earth because most living organisms require gases, water, and nutrients/minerals from them
• Life on Earth is ubiquitous, with organisms found in extreme environments
• Out of all the planets in the solar system, only Earth is habitable and able to sustain life
• If one of the subsystems fails to work

  It would negatively impact the existence of life on Earth
• Minerals are the "building blocks" of rocks, naturally occurring pure substances with a definite chemical composition and an orderly repeating atomic structure that defines a crystal structure
• Examples of minerals


  • Quartz (SiO2)
  • Potassium Feldspar (KAlSi3O8)
  • Calcite (CaCO3)
  • Dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2)
  • Hematite (Fe2O3)
  • Magnetite (Fe3O4)
  • Galena (PbS)
  • Pyrite (FeS2)
  • Gypsum (CaSO4•2H2O)
  • Anhydrite (CaSO4)
  • Halite (NaCl)
  • Fluorite (CaF2)
  • Gold (Au)
  • Diamond (C)
  • Arsenic (As)
• Aside from chemical composition, there are also different mineral properties that can be used to distinguish and identify a mineral, such as color
• Color is the easiest property used to identify minerals, but it is also the least useful or reliable property as some minerals can have the same color
• Minerals


  Elements or compounds chemically bonded to each other
• Chemical properties of minerals

  • Quartz (SiO2)
  • Potassium Feldspar (KAlSi3O8)
  • Calcite (CaCO3)
  • Dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2)
  • Hematite (Fe2O3)
  • Magnetite (Fe3O4)
  • Galena (PbS)
  • Pyrite (FeS2)
  • Gypsum (CaSO4•2H2O)
  • Anhydrite (CaSO4)
  • Halite (NaCl)
  • Fluorite (CaF2)
  • Gold (Au)
  • Diamond (C)
  • Arsenic (As)
• Color


  • Result of how minerals absorb light
  • Some minerals share the same color but others exhibit a unique color
  • Affected by impurities and weathering
• Streak


  Color of the mineral in its powdered form
• Luster


  • Quality and intensity of light being reflected by the mineral
  • Metallic or Non-Metallic
• Hardness


  • Measure of the mineral's resistance to scratching
  • Mohs Scale of Hardness
• Cleavage


  Mineral's ability to break along particular directions to form smooth, flat surfaces
• Fracture


  • Describes the mark left when a mineral breaks or "chips"
  • Conchoidal, Uneven, Hackly
• Specific Gravity


  Ratio of the weight of a mineral to the weight of an equal volume of water
• Other mineral properties


  • Magnetism
  • Reaction to Acids
  • Odor
  • Taste
• Rocks


  • Aggregates of one or more minerals
  • Solid, inorganic, and naturally formed without a particular atomic structure or chemical composition
• Igneous Rocks


  • Formed from the cooling and solidification of magma and lava
  • Intrusive or Extrusive
• Intrusive Igneous Rocks


  • Granite
  • Gabbro
  • Diorite
• Extrusive Igneous Rocks


  • Obsidian
  • Basalt
  • Pumice
• Sedimentary Rocks


  • Formed by the accumulation of sediments
  • Dependent on surface processes like weathering and erosion
  • Clastic, Chemical, Organic