ANAPHYSIOLOGY

• Anatomy

  Study of the structure of organisms and their parts
• Anatomy


  • Physical structure and organization
• System


  Group of structures that have one or more common functions
• Subfields of Anatomy


  • Gross Anatomy
  • Microscopic Anatomy
  • Histology
  • Cytology
  • Developmental Anatomy (Embryology)
  • Surface Anatomy
• Gross Anatomy


  Can be seen with the naked eye
• Microscopic Anatomy


  Cells and tissues
• Histology


  Structural features of tissue
• Cytology


  Structural features of cell
• Developmental Anatomy (Embryology)


  Development of an organism from fertilization to birth
• Surface Anatomy


  External features of the body and their relationship to the deeper structures beneath skin
• Anatomical Methods


  • X-Ray
  • Ultrasound
  • Computed Tomography (CT)
  • Digital Substraction Angiography (DSA)
  • Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
  • Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
• Digital Substraction Angiography (DSA)

  3D for organs
• Positron Emission Tomography (PET)


  For brain
• Anatomical Anomalies


  Congenital anomalies or congenital malformations
• Anatomical Anomalies


  • Down syndrome
  • Turner syndrome
  • Extra fingers or toes
• Physiology


  Functions and processes of living organisms and their parts
• Subfields of Physiology


  • Cell Physiology
  • Systemic Physiology
  • Cardiovascular Physiology
  • Neurophysiology
• Physiology


  The computational and mathematical modeling of complex biological systems. It tries to describe the way individual cells or components of a system converge to respond as a whole. They often investigate metabolic networks and cell signaling.
• Cell signaling


  • Wound healing after injury
  • Activation of the immune system in response to pathogens
  • Changes in gene expression during different developmental stages
• Anatomy


  The study of the structure of body parts
• Physiology


  Focuses on how body parts work and relate to each other
• Branches of Physiology


  • Cell physiology
  • Systems physiology
  • Evolutionary physiology
  • Defense physiology
  • Exercise physiology
• Cell physiology


  Studying the way cells work and interact, mostly concentrating on membrane transport and neuron transmission
• Systems physiology


  Focuses on the computational and mathematical modeling of complex biological systems. It tries to describe the way individual cells or components of a system converge to respond as a whole. They often investigate metabolic networks and cell signaling.
• Evolutionary physiology


  Studying the way systems, or parts of systems, have adapted and changed over multiple generations. Research topics cover a lot of ground including the role of behavior in evolution, sexual selection, and physiological changes in relation to geographic variation.
• Defense physiology


  Changes that occur as a reaction to a potential threat, such as preparation for the fight-or-flight response.
• Exercise physiology


  The study of the physiology of physical exercise. This includes research into bioenergetics, biochemistry, cardiopulmonary function, biomechanics, hematology, skeletal muscle physiology, neuroendocrine function, and nervous system function.
• 1. ray


  Extremely shortwave electromagnetic radiation that moves through the body, exposing a photographic plate to form a radiograph
• 1. ray


  • Bones and radiopaque dyes absorb the rays and create underexposed areas that appear white on the photographic film
  • Gives only flat, two-dimensional (2-D) images
• A major limitation of radiographs is that they give only flat, two-dimensional (2-D) images
• Computed tomographic (CT) scans


  Computer-analyzed x-ray images
• CT scans originally called computerized axial tomographic (CAT) scans developed

  1972
• How CT scans work

  1. Low-intensity x-ray tube rotated through 360-degree arc around patient

  2. Images fed into computer

  3. Computer constructs image of "slice" through body at point where x-ray beam focused and rotated
• CT scans


  • Some computers able to take several scans short distances apart and stack the slices to produce a 3-D image of a body part
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)


  Directs radio waves at a person lying inside a large electromagnetic field
• MRI process


  1. Magnetic field causes the protons of various atoms to align

  2. Radio waves of certain frequencies change the alignment of the hydrogen atoms

  3. When the radio waves are turned off, the hydrogen atoms realign in accordance with the magnetic field

  4. Differences in the time it takes the hydrogen atoms to realign are analyzed by computer to produce clear sections through the body
• MRI


  • More effective at detecting some forms of cancer than a CT scan
• Because of the large amount of water in the body, the alignment of hydrogen atom protons is most important in this imaging system
• Positron emission tomographic (PET) scans


  Can identify the metabolic states of various tissues
• PET scans


  • Particularly useful in analyzing the brain