exam questions

• • Land Ownership: The Church, which made up the First Estate, did indeed own a significant portion of land in France, estimates range from 5% to 10%.
  • Tax Exemptions: The Second Estate, the nobility, largely enjoyed tax exemptions or significant reductions compared to the Third Estate.
• • Third Estate Heterogeneity: The Third Estate was far from homogenous. It included a wide range of people, from wealthy merchants and bourgeoisie (middle class) to poor peasants and laborers.
  • Social Mobility: While social mobility was limited, it wasn't entirely absent. ---For example, someone from the Third Estate could acquire wealth and potentially elevate their social standing. Additionally, some positions within the Church (First Estate) were attainable by those not born into nobility.
• French revolution:

  The main impact of the moderate stage (1789-1792) is the restructuring of the relations between the state and the church. (True) This period saw the creation of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, which nationalized church lands and brought the clergy under state control.
• french revolution: The radical stage (1793 – 1794) is associated with the de-Christianization campaign and the killing of the royalists.pen_spark
• french revolution: The radical stage is also known as the Reign of Terror due to excessive use of violence.
• the Compromise of 1867 are:

  • United Austria and Hungary as one political entity but with each having a separate ministry and parliament
  • Created a common customs union and postal service
• compromise of 1867:

  • Dual Monarchy: The Compromise established a dual monarchy with Austria and Hungary as the two major states. They shared a ruler (Franz Joseph) and some foreign policy and military functions, but each had significant autonomy with its own parliament and government.
  • Economic Cooperation: The common customs union and postal service facilitated economic exchange and integration between Austria and Hungary.
• But also (and see my references in upcoming classes)

  • Imperialism and expansion (pp. 188-200)
  • World War I (pp. 195-209)
• The pastness of the past and overstating rupture/discontinuity
• Selectiveness of 'great men and women of history'
• Linear Progressive history: Marx, Fukuyama
• Teleology, causality and risk of overdetermination
• Selection mechanism; helping distinguish the (un)educated
• Nationalism and the natural character of nation-states
• Post-colonialism and reclaiming the past
• Understanding continuity and change; revolution and institutionalisation
• The long 19th Century (Eric Hobsbawn)


  • 1789 - the collapse of French absolutist monarch - the eruption of the 1st WW
  • From a society of orders (the three states) > a society of classes (mobile)
  • Popular sovereignty and new modes of political legitimation
  • Economic and social transformation
  • Demographic explosion and mass migration
  • Dramatic changes in the political landscape
  • New European powers; unification of Italy
  • The consolidation of nation-states and imperialism
  • The incorporation of the masses in politics
• Modernisation (sociology)


  The transformation from a traditional, rural, agrarian society to a secular, urban, industrial society
• Modern man (individual subjectivity)


  • Rejection of tradition, prioritisation of individualism, freedom and formal equality (meritocracy)
  • Faith in social, scientific and technological progress and human perfectability and rationality
• French Revolution


  • Revolutionary movement of 1787-1799 (climax: 1789)
  • Breakdown of 'Acien régime'; exercise in democracy
• Background Causes


  • 18th century Enlightenment, scientific revolution and theories on popular sovereignty
  • Creation of public sphere; literacy rates increased; press development
  • Examples: Glorious revolution (1688-1689, England) and American revolution (1775-1783)
  • Expenditures of Louis XIV, The sun king (f.e. Versailles palace was really expensive)
  • Expenditures during the American revolution (France supported Americans during their fight for independence)
  • Seven years war (England/France) and loss of many its colonies
  • Poor harvests, famine and harsh taxes
  • Class struggle and inequalities: The Three estates
  • Louis XVI: Inherited struggle with provincial parlements
• Direct Cause


  • New tax system ('land tax' proposition met resistance from Aristocracy) → national bankruptcy
  • 1787-1788: political struggle between judiciary and King Louis XVI → Louis was forced to call for a meeting of the Estates-General, the legislative body of France
• Ancien Régime economics


  • Demographic growth
  • A feudal Nation
  • Agriculture
  • Geography
  • Famine
• Demographic growth


  1700: 20 million → 1780: 25 to 28 million
• A feudal Nation


  • Predominantly agricultural nation
  • 80% lived on the countryside
  • 20% In the urban areas; only 8 cities with a population over 50k people
  • Paris: 650k people
• Agriculture


  • 75% of all production
  • But low in productivity (labour intensive, out of date, methods)
  • Small estates (inheritance laws)
  • Only large-scale farming around Paris
  • Failed to keep pass with demographic growth
• Geography


  • A jigsaw of land; aggregated over preceding centuries
  • 1664: Saint-Dominigue (today's Haiti)
  • 1770 Corsica
• Famine


  • 1780s: Poor harvests
  • 1788: harsh winter (57 straight days of frost in Paris); followed by floods
  • Food shortages in cities
  • Ban on food exports, import of 148,000 tonnes of cereal and grain
  • Rising bread prices: 70-90% of the daily wage of an unskilled worker
• Ancien Régime Politics


  • King ruled by divine right
  • Absolutist rule = absence of a constitution
  • An intendancy system
  • Parlements = provincial courts of appeal (judiciary)
  • Parlements = a source of resistance to absolutist rule
  • Estates-general
• King ruled by divine right

  • Some restrictions on power via moral and divine laws, customs of principles of law and administration (Fundamental laws)
  • Decision-making with King's council (consultative and deliberative prerogatives)
• Absolutist rule


  • Nu universal law; only royal decrees
  • Precice codes and rules varied across 'parlements' (Legal pluralism)
• Intendancy system


  • Provinces administered by intendentans
  • Supervision & enforcement of the King's will (centralisation of power)
  • Non-heriditary positions, temp jobs
  • Power over policing, financing, justice
• Parlements


  • Provincial courts of appeal (judiciary)
  • 1.100 judges, 13 parlements, nobles of the robe
  • Uneven districts (Paris court approx. 1/3 of France)
  • Developed out of the King's council
  • 15th C: droit de remontrance : power to appeal to edicts of the Crown; in particular taxation
  • Worked primarily for the benefit of the aristocracy: resisted taxes
• Parlements


  • A source of resistance to absolutist rule
  • Second half of 16th century: growing conflicts with King
  • Louis XIV: 20 april 1667: weakens power of right to appeal; later bansall "unrespectful appeals"
  • 1766: Flagellation Louis XV speech in Paris Parliament: reminds parliaments of his divine right of rule
  • 1771 coup de Majesté": reform of justice system; strictly defined system of appeals
  • Louis XVI restores right to appeal – quest for popularity
  • Growing use – also in light of scientific revolution 18th Century and quest for new forms of justifying authority
• Estates-general


  • The legislative or consultive assembly of the three classes (estates)
  • Advisory body of the King; presenting pelitions ( cahiers ) from the 3 estates (especially on fiscal policies)
  • Late 15th century: elective character (third estate) incompatible with divine right of kings
  • Met only intermittently, on the King's initiative
  • Last meeting = 1614
  • And then, in 1789
• The Three Estates


  • PRAYER: First estate = Catholics clergy
  • MILITARY: Second estate = Nobility
  • WORK: Third estate = Commoners
• First estate


  All property (5-10% of the land) was taxed exempted
• Second estate


  • Sheer monopoly over higher administrative, military functions, higher church offices, etc.
  • Exempted by taxes
• Third estate


  • Capitalist bourgeoisie (merchants, royal administration), skilled workers/craftsmen, city workers (servants, cooks, drivers, etc.), peasants
  • 80% of the French population were farmers
  • Tax duties (but often, the bourgoise would find exemptions)
• Rigid social structures; only limited social mobility