organic (industry/)

• Depletion of ozone


  O3 + Cl. --> ClO. + O2

  ClO. + O3 --> 2O2 + Cl.

  Overall: O3 --> O2 
• Kevlar 


  Benzene 1,4 dicarboxyllic acid diaminobenzene

  Condensation (HCl )

  Lightweight so construction and bulletproof vests

  Hydrolysis
• Nylon (aliphatic)


  Hexandioc acid and diamonihexene

  Condensation (H20)

  Ropes, clothing, tyre cords  

  Hydrolysis
• Terylene 


  Benzene 1,4 dicarboxyllic acid and ethane1,2 diol

  Condensation (H2O)

  Clothing as a fibre, bottles

  Hydrolysis via acid/base

  Faster with base, slower with acid
• Polyalkenes


  Eg PVC

  Non-biodegradable as they are chemically inert

  Many covalent bonds and Van Der Whaal forces
• Polyesters/polyamides 


  Eg Nylon 6,6 and Terylene

  Biodegradable and are broken down by hydrolysis

  Ester bonds/amide bonds
• Disposal methods 


  Landfills: Landfills will allow them to slowly biodegrade as bacteria breaks polymer down however toxic compounds like HCl can leak, there is limited land available and this is slow.

  Incineration: Can use incineration which takes up less space than landfills but this releases CO2 into atmosphere contributing to enhanced greenhouse effect

  Recycling: Reuse and conservation of resources but this is time-consuming and expensive as it must be collected, sorted, separated and remoulded.
• Anti-cancer drugs


  Cisplatin complex consists of Pt bound to 2Cl and 2NH3 in square planar structure

  It binds to the DNA and disrupts DNA replication (cancer is uncontrolled cell division)

  This occurs via a ligand substitution mechanism (where chlorine are substituted for water later substituted for the nitrogen on the DNA bases)

  However, it can inhibit such replication in healthy cells (though important to note it is more effecting at disrupting cancerous cells)   
• Carboxyllic acids and esters (uses)

  Esters used as plasticisers, perfumes, in solvents and food flavourings

  Vegetable oils and animal fats are esters of propan-1,2,3-triol (glycerol)

  Esters can be hydrolysed in acidic conditions to make alcohols and carboxyllic acids or alkanine conditions to make carboxylate salts

  Vegetable oils hydrolysed in alakaline conditions to make soap and glycerol

  Biodiesel is a mixture of methyl esters of long-chain

  carboxylic acids.

  Biodiesel is produced by reacting vegetable oils with

  methanol in the presence of a catalyst.
• Mass Spectrometer

  Sensitive to the mass-to-charge ratio, m/e, or m/z, of the species, and depends on the way that electric and magnetic fields affect the paths of positive ions
• Mass spectrum

  A plot of signal strength against magnetic field is a series of spikes corresponding to the values of m/e in the ionised sample
• The relative atomic mass of an isotopically mixed element is the weighted mean of the atomic masses
• Molecular Mass Spectrometry

  The sample is ionised as normal; this usually results in the ionised molecules falling apart into fragments
• The ionising electron beam is usually not energetic enough to remove more than one electron from each sample molecule, so we rarely need to worry about the presence of multi-charged ions
• Mass spectrum of methanol

  • Molecular ion (CH3OH)+
  • Fragments: CH3O+, CHO+, CO+
• Chromatography

  An analytical technique used to separate and identify component molecules of a mixture

  
• Chromatography

  • Uses a mobile phase and a stationary phase

  
• Mobile phase

  A substance that allows molecules to move over or through the stationary phase
• Stationary phase

  A substance that has affinity to molecules in the mixture being analysed
• More soluble products

  Move further with the mobile phase
• Greater the affinity of a molecule to the stationary phase


  Shorter the distance it moves with the mobile phase

  
• Rf value

  A value that is unique to each different component molecule in the mixture being analysed, calculated by comparing the distance moved by the mobile phase and the molecule

  
• Thin-Layer Chromatography

  1. Metal plate coated with a thin layer of silica

  2. Solvent moves up the plate

  3. Plate dried in a fume cupboard

  4. Chemical traces viewed using a UV lamp or developing agent
• Column Chromatography

  1. Vertical column packed with a solid, powdered substance as the stationary phase

  2. Solvent containing the mixture being analysed added and moves down the column as the mobile phase

  3. Varying affinities of molecules mean they drain out of the column at different times, allowing them to be collected as separate samples

  4. Time taken to drain out of the column is measured as the retention time

  
• Gas Chromatography

  1. Thin tube packed with a solid, powdered substance as the stationary phase

  2. High pressure gas passed through the tube as the mobile phase

  3. Used to separate mixtures of volatile liquids fed into the machine as vapours

  4. Analysis machine records a retention time for each component molecule

  
• GC-MS

  Combination of gas chromatography and mass spectrometry, allowing for more advanced molecule analysis and identification

  
• GC-MS is a much faster analytical process that produces more accurate results for molecule analysis and identification
• Buchner funnel

  A) solid particles remain here

  B) moistened filter paper

  C) porous plate

  D) rubber tubing

  E) partial vacuum

  F) filtrate

  G) rubber bung