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• Learning occurs when experience (including practice) causes a relatively permanent change in an individual’s knowledge, behavior, or potential for behavior. 
• Behavioral views - explanations of learning that focus on external events as the cause of changes in observable behaviors.
• Behavior modification -  evokes images of brain washing, punishment, and even shock therapy.
• Early Explanations of Learning: 

  Aristotle (384-322 BC), we remember things together:

  1.  When they are similar.
  2. When they contrast.
  3. When they are contiguous
• Contiguity - association of two events because of repeated pairing
• Classical Conditioning - Association of automatic responses with new stimuli.
• • Respondents responses (generally automatic or involuntary) elicited by specific stimuli.
• Neutral stimulus - stimulus not connected to a response.
• Unconditioned stimulus - stimulus that automatically produces an emotional or  physiological response.
• Unconditioned response - naturally occurring emotional or physiological response.
• Conditioned stimulus - stimulus that evokes an emotional or physiological response after conditioning.
• Conditioned response - learned, emotional or physiological response.
• Operants - voluntary (and generally goal-directed) behaviors emitted by a person or an animal.
• Operant conditioning - learning in which voluntary behavior is strengthened or weakened by consequences or antecedents.
• Environmental influences: antecedents and consequences.
• Reinforcement - use of consequences to strengthen behavior.
• Reinforcer - any event that follows a behavior and increases the chances that the behavior will occur again.
• Punishment - process that weakens or suppresses behavior.
• Two types: presentation punishment (Type 1) and removal punishment (Type 2).
• Continuous - Reinforcement after every response.
• 1. Fixed-interval - Reinforcement after a set period of time.
• • Variable-interval Reinforcement after varying lengths of time
• • Fixed-ratio Reinforcement after a set of number of responses.
• 1. Variable-ratio - Reinforcement after varying number of responses.
• Extinction – the disappearance of a learned response.
• Stimulus control - capacity for the presence or absence of antecedents to cause behaviors.
• • Effective instruction delivery Instructions that are concise, clear, and specific, and thatcommunicate an expected result. Statements work better than questions. 
• Cueing - the act of providing an antecedent stimulus just before a specific behavior is supposed to take place.
• Applied Behavior Analysis - application of behavioral learning principles to understand and change behavior.
• • Differential reinforcement or ignoring inappropriate behaviors, while being sure to reinforce appropriate behaviors as soon as they occur.
• • Premack principle a preferred activity can be an effective reinforcer for a less preferred activity.
• Shaping -also called successive approximations, reinforcing each small step of progress toward a desired goal or behavior. 
• • Task analysis system for breaking down a task hierarchically into basic skills and subskills.
• Positive practice – practicing correct responses immediately after errors.
• Contingency Contracts - A contract between the teacher and a student specifying what the student  must do to earn a particular reward or privilege.
• Token Reinforcement System - in which tokens earned for academic work and positive classroom behavior can be exchanged for some desired reward.
• • Group Consequences Rewards or punishments given to a class as a whole for adhering to or violating rules of conduct. 
• Good behavior game - arrangement where a class is divided into teams and each team receives demerit points for breaking agreed upon rules of good behavior.
• • Negative reinforcement place students in mildly unpleasant situations so they can “escape” when their behavior improves.
• • Reprimands Soft, calm, private reprimands are more effective than loud, public reprimands in decreasing disruptive behavior.