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• Metacognition - about cognition or thinking about thinking.
• Metacognition -  higher-order knowledge about your own thinking as well as your ability to use this knowledge to manage your own cognitive processes––such as comprehension or problem solving.
• 1. Declarative - knowledge about yourself as a learner, the factors that influence your learning and memory, and the skills, strategies, and resources needed to perform a task—knowing what to do;
• Procedural - knowledge or knowing how to use the strategies;
• Self-regulatory - knowledge to ensure the completion of the task—knowing the conditions, when and why, to apply the procedures and strategies.
• • Planning involves deciding how much time to give to a task, which strategies to use, how and where to start, which resources to gather, what order to follow, and so on.
• • Monitoring is the real-time awareness of “how I’m doing.” Monitoring is asking, “Is this making sense? Am I trying to go too fast? Should I be taking notes?” 
• Evaluating -  involves making judgments about the processes and outcomes of thinking and learning. “Should I get help? Give up for now? Is this paper (painting, model, poem, plan, etc.) finished?” 
• Concept maps - are graphical tools for organizing and representing knowledge and relationships within a particular field or on a given topic.
• Retrieval practice - also called the testing effect or active retrieval.
• Production deficiency - students learn problem-solving strategies, but do not apply them when they could or should.
• Problem - any situation in which you are trying to reach some goal, must find a means to do so.
• Problem solving - creating new solutions for problems. 
• 1. Schema-driven problem solving - recognizing a problem as a “disguised” version of an old problem for which one already has a solution.
• • Heuristics general strategy used in attempting to solve problems.
• • Algorithms step-by-step procedure for solving a problem; prescription for solutions. 
• Means-ends analysis – a goal is divided into subgoals.
• • Working-backward strategy you start with the goal and move backward to solve the problem.
• Analogical thinking one limits the search for solutions to situations that are similar to the one at hand.
• Verbalization - putting your problem-solving plan and its logic into words.
• 1. Functional fixedness - inability to use objects or tools in a new way.
• • Response set rigidity; the tendency to respond in the most familiar way.
• • Availability heuristic judging the likelihood of an event based on what is available in your memory, assuming those easily remembered events are common.
• • Belief perseverance the tendency to hold on to beliefs, even in the face of contradictory evidence.
• 1. Representativeness heuristic - judging the likelihood of an event based on how well the events match your prototypes—what you think is representative of the category.
• 1. Critical thinking - evaluating conclusions by logically and systematically examining the problem, the evidence, and the solution.
• • Confirmation bias seeking information that confirms our choices and beliefs, while ignoring disconfirming evidence.
• 1. Dialogue: Teachers pose questions and encourage students to dialogue through whole class and small group discussion, debates, Socratic dialogue, or written exchanges. 
• 1. Authentic Instruction: Teachers focus the dialogue on problems that make sense to the students using role-plays, simulations, case studies, or ethical dilemmas, for example. 
• 1. Mentorship: One-to-one mentoring for students from teachers, coaches, or other adults also supports the development of critical thinking.
• 1. Argumentation  - the process of debating a claim with someone else. 
• • Disputative argumentation is supporting your position with evidence and understanding and then refuting your opponent’s claims and evidence. 
• • Transfer influence of previously learned material on new material; the productive (not reproductive) uses of cognitive tools and motivations.
• Acquisition phase - students should not only receive instruction about a strategy and how to use it but also rehearse the strategy and practice being aware of when and how they are using it.
• Retention phase -  more practice with feedback helps students hone their strategy use. 
• • Deep knowledge is knowledge about underlying principles that allows experts to recognize the same principle-based features in seemingly different problems. 
• Transfer phase - students should be given new problems that they can solve with the same strategy, even though the problems appear different on the surface.
• • Connected knowledge means many separate bits of information are linked.
• Coherent - knowledge is consistent and has no contradictions.
• • Deliberative argumentation the goal is to collaborate in comparing, contrasting, and evaluating alternatives, then arrive at a constructive conclusion.