Final Review

• Organic compounds


  Primarily consist of carbon and hydrogen atoms
• Test for carbon and hydrogen

  1. Anhydrous CuSO4 = white color

  2. CuSO4 + hydrated (Hydrous CuSO4) = blue

  3. Carbon = CO2 (Carbon dioxide gas)

  4. CO2 = lime water turns milky
• Chemical reaction process with presence of carbon

  CaCO3 (milky) is the product or precipitate
• Chemical reaction process with presence of hydrogen

  Forms H2O vapor or water vapor
• Chemical reaction process with presence of hydrogen

  CuSO4,5H20 (Hydrous CuSO4,blue)
• Ferrox Paper


  Prepared by soaking the filter paper in the ethanol containing equal amounts (1:1) of KCNS and Ferric Chloride
• Test for oxygen


  1. Liquid will dissolve the salt and show red to violet coloration if the compound contains oxygen or sulfur and nitrogen

  2. If the sample is solid, make a saturated solution of the compound in warm benzene or purified carbon tetrachloride
• Alcohol


  Gives a positive reaction on the test for oxygen
• Sodium fusion for nitrogen, sulfur and halogens


  1. Wear safety gloves

  2. Hot sodium is a potentially dangerous substance, and some organic compounds decompose violently when they are heated with the metal
• Tests for sulfur (Lead Acetate)


  1. Results: Dark coloration or black

  2. Presence of sulfur as sulfide ion

  3. Acidifying agent: diluted acetic acid
• Thiols


  Give a positive reaction on the test for sulfurs
• Test for sulfur (Sodium Nitroprusside)


  1. Results: a deep red or purple color

  2. Indicates the presence of sulfide ion
• Tests for nitrogen (Lassaigne's Tests)


  1. Solution should be acidic

  2. Results: a blue coloration or precipitate known as Prussian blue

  3. Indicates the presence of nitrogen

  4. Acidifying agent: sulfuric acid
• Ethanamide


  Gives a positive reaction on the Lassaigne's Test
• Tests for nitrogen (Soda-Lime Test)


  1. Results: the change of color of the wet indicator paper as the mixture is heated

  2. Basicity or acidity
• Tests for halogens (Beilstein Test)


  1. Results: a blue-green flame

  2. Indicates the presence of chlorine, bromine or iodine
• Chloroform


  Gives a positive reaction on the Beilstein Test
• Tests for chlorine, bromine and iodide ions in the sodium fusion filtrate


  1. Results: a white to yellow cloud or precipitate

  2. Indicates the presence of chloride, bromide or iodide

  3. Acidifying agent: diluted nitric acid
• Hydrocarbons


  • The simplest types of organic compounds, they only contain Carbons and Hydrogen
  • They may be either composed of single bonds (unsaturated) or multiple bonds
• Types of hydrocarbons

  • Aliphatic
  • Unsaturated aliphatic hydrocarbons
  • Aromatic hydrocarbon
• Aliphatic


  Saturated hydrocarbons include alkanes and cycloalkanes
• Unsaturated aliphatic hydrocarbons


  Consist of alkenes and alkynes and their cycle counterparts
• Aromatic hydrocarbon


  Exemplified by the benzene ring, a six-carbon ring with the double bonds arranged in alternating manner
• Hydrocarbons


  • Hexane, Heptane and Cyclohexane (Saturated HC)
  • Cyclohexene (Unsaturated HC)
  • Benzene and Toluene (Aromatic HC)
• Baeyer's test


  1. Test for active unsaturation

  2. Color will decolorized decolorization
• Test for aromaticity: Nitration


  1. Commonly used to distinguish between aromatic and non-aromatic hydrocarbons

  2. Results in a yellow oily layer or droplet
• Basic oxidation


  1. Commonly used to distinguish between saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons

  2. Helps identify the presence of double or triple bonds in unsaturated hydrocarbons, as they are more readily oxidized than saturated hydrocarbons

  3. Toluene when oxidized yields to benzoic acid
• Acyclic


  Hydrocarbons that do not form a closed loop or ring structure and can have straight or branched chains
• Cyclic


  Hydrocarbons that form one or more closed loops or rings and include compounds like cycloalkanes, cycloalkenes, and aromatic compounds like benzene
• Saturated


  • Hydrocarbons with single bonds carbon atoms and they have a maximum number of hydrogen atoms
  • Example: alkanes
• Unsaturated


  • Hydrocarbons with at least one double or triple bond carbon atoms and fewer hydrogen
  • Example: alkenes and alkynes
• Actively saturated


  Hydrocarbons with functional groups
• Aliphatic


  Hydrocarbons with straight or branched chains of carbon atoms
• Aromatic


  Hydrocarbons with a specific ring structure (aromatic ring) which consists of alternating double and single bonds
• Baeyer's test


  1. Reaction: The unsaturated compound reacts with an alkaline solution of potassium permanganate (KMnO₄) to form a diol (glycol) product

  2. General Mechanism: The double bond of the unsaturated compound attacks the permanganate ion (MnO₄⁻), breaking the double bond and forming a cyclic manganate ester intermediate, which undergoes hydrolysis to form a vicinal diol (glycol) and manganese dioxide (MnO₂)
• Bromine test


  1. Reaction: Bromine (Br₂) adds across the double bond of an alkene, forming a dibromoalkane product

  2. General Mechanism: The pi electrons of the double bond in the alkene attack one of the bromine atoms, breaking the Br-Br bond, forming a bromonium ion intermediate, which is then attacked by a bromide ion to form the dibromoalkane product
• Nitration


  1. Reaction: Aromatic compounds react with concentrated nitric acid (HNO₃) and sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) to introduce a nitro group (-NO₂) onto the aromatic ring

  2. General Mechanism: Sulfuric acid protonates nitric acid to produce a strong electrophile, the nitronium ion (NO₂⁺), which attacks the aromatic ring, forming a sigma complex intermediate, which then loses a proton to regenerate the aromatic ring and form the nitroaromatic product
• Number of carbon atoms

  • Affects the degree of luminosity of the flame produced
  • Shorter chain hydrocarbons generally produce cleaner and less luminous flames
  • Longer chain hydrocarbons tend to produce more luminous flames with higher levels of soot
• Alkanes


  Referred to as the saturated hydrocarbons (Volatile), that is, hydrocarbons having all carbon atoms connected by single bonds and having the maximum number of hydrogen atoms
• Bromination


  1. Bromine reacts with alkene

  2. Opening the ring

  3. Forming the dibromoalkane product