module 6

• Photosynthesis


  Process by which plants and other photosynthetic organisms utilize and convert light energy and inputs of water and carbon dioxide into chemical energy in the form of sugar

  
• Photosynthesis


  1. Occurs inside the Chloroplast

  2. Chloroplast contains pigments called Chlorophyl that captures light energy from the sun

  
• Thylakoid


  Membrane network inside the chloroplast which is embedded with protein complexes necessary for Light Dependent Reactions to occur
• Granum


  Stacks of thylakoid connected by the lamellae (plural grana)
• Stroma


  Fluid that surround the grana where Light Independent Reactions occur

  
• Light Dependent Reaction


  1. Captures light energy and breaks down water into oxygen and hydrogen ions

  2. Produces oxygen, ATP and NADPH which will be needed in the Light Independent Reactions

  
• Components of Light Dependent Reaction

  • Photosystem II (PS II / P680)
  • Plastoquinone (PQ)
  • Cytochrome B6-f Complex (Cyt B6f)
  • Plastocyanin (PC)
  • Photosystem I (PS I / P700)
  • Ferredoxin (FD)
  • NADP Reductase
  • ATP Synthase

  
• Light Independent Reaction


  1. Carbon Fixation

  2. PGA Reduction

  3. RuBP Regeneration

  
• The products produced after Light Independent Reaction were Oxygen, ATP and NADPH
• ATP and NADPH produced by the Light Independent Reaction, together with the Carbon Dioxide harvested by the stomata from the air, were needed to proceed with Light Independent reactions

  
• After two cycles of the Light Independent Reaction, one molecule of glucose was produced

  
• Cellular Respiration


  Process by which cells breaks up glucose to form cellular energy in the form of ATP

  
• Aerobic Respiration


  1. Glycolysis

  2. Pyruvate Oxidation

  3. Krebs Cycle

  4. Oxidative Phosphorylation

  
• Glycolysis produces 2 ATP and 2 NADH
• Krebs Cycle produces 1 Carbon Dioxide and 1 NADH per step
• Oxidative Phosphorylation produces 18 ATP from 6 NADH and 4 ATP from 2 FADH
• Anaerobic Respiration


  1. Lactic Acid Fermentation

  2. Alcohol/Ethanol Fermentation
• Anaerobic Respiration only produces 2 ATP
• Pyruvate Oxidation


  2 NADH → _ ATP
• Krebs Cycle


  1 Glucose → 2 Cycles→ 2 ATP

  
• Oxidative Phosphorylation


  1. 6 NADH → 18 ATP

  2. 2 FADH → 4 ATP
• Anaerobic Respiration


  A two-stage process of converting glucose to form energy without the use of oxygen wherein Glycolysis acts as the only ATP extracting pathway followed by one or two other reactions which regenerates NAD from NADH produced during Glycolysis. At the end of this process, only 2 ATP molecules will be produced.

  
• Lactic Acid Fermentation


  NADH transfers electron directly to pyruvate/pyruvic acid, generating lactate/lactic acid as the by-product.
• Alcohol/Ethanol Fermentation


  A two-step process of converting pyruvate to ethanol with the aid of yeast. In the first step carbon dioxide is releasing from removing a carboxyl group from the pyruvate yielding Acetaldehyde, then NADH transfer electrons to the Acetaldehyde regenerating NAD and forming Ethanol as by-product.
• Cell membrane


  Made up two layers of phospholipids composed of a hydrophilic/lipophobic head and a hydrophobic/lipophilic tail
• Passive Transport


  The movement of molecules across a semi-permeable membrane without the need for energy expenditure. This is because molecules flow along the concentration gradient (from an area with high molecule concentration to an area with low molecule concentration).
• Active Transport


  The movement of molecules across a semi-permeable membrane with the need for energy investment. This is because molecules flow against the concentration gradient (from an area with low molecule concentration to an area with high molecule concentration).
• Types of Passive Transport

  • Simple Diffusion
  • Facilitated Diffusion
  • Osmosis
• Simple Diffusion


  Molecules should be small enough to pass the semi-permeable membrane without requiring energy.
• Facilitated Diffusion


  Larger molecules that could not pass through the semi-permeable membrane can utilized transport proteins and channels.
• Osmosis


  The diffusion of water molecules through a semi-permeable membrane embedded with protein channels called AQUAPORINS to achieve equilibrium. Movement of water through osmosis is affected by the amount of solutes dissolve in it.
• Hypertonic Solution


  A solution with a higher solute concentration. Cells surrounded by this type of solution tends to shrink (PLASMOLYSIS)
• Isotonic Solution


  A solution with an equal amount solute concentration on either side of the cell membrane. Cells surrounded by this type of solution is not affected.
• Hypotonic Solution


  A solution with a lower solute concentration. Cells surrounded by this type of solution tends to swell (CYTOLYSIS)
• Types of Active Transport

  • Membrane Pumps
  • Endocytosis
  • Exocytosis
• Membrane Pumps


  Carrier proteins that when activated by ATP moves substances from an area of low to high concentration.
• Endocytosis


  The process by which cells ingest large particles such as macromolecules and external fluids.
• Phagocytosis


  The ingestion of large particles and/or whole cells
• Pinocytosis


  The ingestion of extracellular solutes and/or fluids
• Exocytosis


  The process by which cells release substances through a vesicle that transport it to the cell surface and fuses with the cell membrane out.