Module 2

• People's attention depends on:

  1. Individual concerns
  2. Physical characteristics of the stimulus
  3. Their preoccupations
  4. Anything
• Schemas


  are mental representations of objects or categories which contain the central features of the object / category and assumptions about how the object or category works
• Selective attention


  focusing on salient (important) aspects
• Categorization


  ex. gender, race, or ethnicity
• Temporal extension


  a momentary characteristic is regarded as an enduring attribute
• Resemblance to a familiar person


  Your impression of a person is based on a person you know, therefore assigning them the characteristic of the person you know
• Categorization/Classification


  You categorize a person based on something they possess
• Inference by Analogy

  1. Metaphorical generalization - body parts signify personal characteristics because of meanings attached to the physical characteristics (ex. thick eyebrows = domineering)
  2. Functional inference - personality is based on functioning of a physical attribute (ex. broad shoulders = good protector)
• Cues in Impression Formation

  1. Other person's behavior or characteristics
  2. Characteristics of the perceiver
  3. Situational context
• Verbal cues


  How the person speaks
• Nonverbal cues


  Facial expressions, paralanguage, gestures, length of gaze, posture, tone of voice, and the like
• Physical Appearance


  matters most at first, but less noticeable when more acquainted
• 4 Facial Features, Ludden (2017)

  1. Babyfaceness - innate tendency to find it appealing; instinct to have soft spot for babies
  2. Familiarity - similar to person you know
  3. Fitness - symmetry of face; more symmetrical, more healthy, likeable, and intelligent
  4. Emotional resemblance - similar emotional response or expressions gives more familiarity and connection with the person
• Facial Expressions


  Help in predicting behavior; varies cross-culturally; has a survival value
• Paralanguage


  refers to pitch, loudness, rhythm, inflections, and hesitations that convey information
• Eye contact


  can be an indication on how a person feels
• Gestures


  the meaning of gestures varies according to context
• Evaluation


  main dimension in person perception; most important and most powerful aspect of first impression; people think primarily about liking or disliking a person
• Consistency

  1. Evaluative consistency - a trait added to the first trait assigned to the person is not connected with the first trait (ex. kind and smart)
  2. Descriptive consistency - additional trait is related to the first trait assigned (ex. kind and compassionate)
• Additive Model


  the positive impression increases when more positive attitudes are added (same goes to negative impressions)
• Averaging Model


  considers all possible and available information before making an impression
• Central Traits Effect


  Not simply averaged, but carry a higher weight in influencing people's overall impressions and causing them to assume the presence of other traits; a negative trait may overshadow many positive traits
• Weighted Averaging Model


  traits carry weight depending on importance to overall impression
• Halo Effect

  1. Positive halo effect - once an angel, always an angel; focuses on the influence of a single positive trait on perception of other unrelated traits
  2. Negative halo effect - Forked tail effect; will still see a person with their negative trait even when they have redeemed themselves; focuses on the influence of a single negative trait on perception of other unrelated traits
• Assumed similarity


  people assume that others are similar to them especially when they have similar demographic features
• Positivity Bias/Leniency Effect


  general tendency to express positive evaluations of people more often than negative evaluations; not being able to see negative traits
• Polyanna principle


  Toxic positivity; people feel better when surrounded with positive things; seeing things with rose-colored glasses
• Negativity Bias


  general tendency of people give more weight to unfavorable attributes/traits; focusing on negative traits of a person
• False Consensus Error


  We believe that our experiences/characteristics/interests of others are similar to ours
• Self-justification


  to validate our thoughts, beliefs and actions; to lessen the pressure to change in the face of conflicting evidence
• Selective exposure


  because we tend to seek out the company of those who are similar to us, we tend to overestimate the commonness of our responses
• Perception of similarity because of liking


  similar with those we like, different from those whom we dislike
• Primacy and Recency Effect


  people judge others based on the initial impression and the latest trait they remember
• Belief Perseverance


  cling to perception of one person despite them showing other traits and initial trait is confirmed false
• Cognitive Confirmatory Bias


  we look for information that fits our pre-existing beliefs and thoughts of a person
• Behavioral Confirmatory Bias 


  Self-fulfilling prophecy; we act in ways that will provoke the behavior that seems to match (fulfill) our expectations (prophecies); unopen to new information
• Overconfidence Bias


  overestimate the correctness of our beliefs
• Hindsight Bias


  we remember our past judgments as having been more accurate than they were
• Stereotyping


  Assigns generalized and biased impressions that people of one group use to characterize those of another group; fixed social beliefs that put people into categories and do not allow for individual differences
• Elements of Stereotypes

  1. Categorization of persons
  2. Consensus on attributed traits
  3. Discrepancy between attributed and actual traits