Attachment

• Attachment


  An emotional tie/bond between 2 people, usually mother & child. The relationship is shared, meaning it's a two-way relationship. The attachment topic examines formation of

  attachments, animal studies of attachment, cross-cultural attachment differences and influence of early attachment on adult relationships.
• Ainsworth's Strange

  Situation

  Observational method- tests strength of attachment between caregiver & infant (Ainsworth et al.-1971). Infants 9–18 months were placed in a new mild stress situation: Unfamiliar room where they are left alone, left with a stranger & reunited with their caregiver. Ainsworth observed infant behaviour with a 1-way mirror in 8 different scenarios each lasting 3 minutes. Observations of behaviours were recorded: Separation anxiety/distress on separation, reunion behaviour/seeking proximity, exploration/safe base behaviour & stranger anxiety.
• Animal Studies


  Early research into attachment was often conducted on non-human animals on the basis that there is biological similarity between animals and humans. Therefore, if something was observed in animal attachment behaviour, it stands to reason that it could also be applied to humans. The two main examples are the research into imprinting in geese conducted by Konrad Lorenz and Harlow zczc research on the importance of contact comfort using rhesus monkeys.
• Bowlby's Theory of

  Maternal Deprivation


  John Bowlby zczc theory of maternal deprivation proposes that prolonged separation from the mother figure in early childhood would have lasting negative effects on a child in terms of their emotional development leading to possible mental health problems or maladjustment. Although Bowlby believed that the effects of maternal deprivation would be at their most acute during the critical period, he also noted that there was a risk of adverse consequences up until five years of age.
• Caregiver–Infant

  Interactions


  Caregiver–infant interactions are the behaviours shown between a caregiver (typically a parent) and a child that help attachments to develop and be maintained. Interactions between caregivers and infants are the subject of psychological research, as they provide an insight into the type and nature of attachment.
• Critical Period


  According to Bowlby, infants must form an attachment with their caregiver during the critical period which is between three and six months of age. However, Bowlby later acknowledged that infants could form an attachment after this period (up to three years of age); however, he maintained that the successful formation of an attachment would be increasingly difficult after this initial period. Bowlby said that if an attachment didn’t form during this time frame, the child would be damaged for life – socially, emotionally, intellectually and physically.
• Cultural Variations


  Cultural variations in attachment are the differences in attachment patterns that exist between infants and their caregivers in different cultures. Attachment has been assessed in a range of cultures using the Strange Situation, and the proportions in each category (secure, insecure avoidant and insecure resistant) were examined in a meta-analysis conducted by van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg.
• Bowlby's Theory of Attachment


  Bowlby's theory of attachment takes an evolutionary perspective. He argued that children are born with an innate tendency to form attachments with their parents in order to increase chances of survival.
• Learning Theory of Attachment


  The learning theory explanation of attachment explains how infants learn to become attached to their primary caregiver through the process of either classical conditioning or operant conditioning. It is sometimes referred to as the ‘cupboard love’ theory because the main principle of this explanation for attachment focuses on food. In a nutshell, it is thought that infants will form an attachment to whoever feeds them.
• Harlow


  Harlow conducted research into attachment using baby rhesus monkeys. By removing the infant monkeys from their mothers and providing wire and/or cloth-covered surrogate mothers, he was able to demonstrate the effects of maternal deprivation and the importance of contact comfort. Harlow zczc research undermines the principles of Learning Theory which suggests that attachment forms to who feeds us.
• Influence of Early

  Attachment

  According to Bowlby, early attachments influence the ability to form relationships later in adulthood. Bowlby suggested that the internal working model becomes a template for future relationships. This predicts the continuity between early relationships with caregivers and later relationships in adulthood.
• Insecure–Avoidant


  Insecure–avoidant (Type A) is an attachment pattern identified by Ainsworth using the Strange Situation. This attachment type is willing to explore but does not seek proximity to the caregiver. They show low separation anxiety and low stranger anxiety and they do not make contact when reunited with the mother. 22% of children show this attachment pattern.
• Insecure–Resistant


  Insecure–resistant (Type C) is an attachment pattern identified by Ainsworth using the Strange Situation. This attachment type is not willing to explore their surroundings and seeks greater proximity to the caregiver (clinging). Theses infants show both extreme separation anxiety and high stranger anxiety and they do seek contact when reunited with the mother, but then reject her. This is sometimes known as ambivalent attachment. 12% of children show this pattern.
• Institutionalisation


  Institutionalisation, in the context of attachment, refers to the effects of growing up in institutional care such as an orphanage or children zczc home. Children who are raised in these institutions often suffer from a lack of emotional care, which means that children are unable to form attachments.
• Interactional Synchrony


  Interactional synchrony takes place when infants mirror the actions or emotions of another person, for example, their facial expressions. This mirroring can also be referred to as imitation or simply copying the adults’ behavior. In this caregiver–infant interaction the child will move their body or carry out the same act as their caregiver simultaneously and the two are said to be synchronized (in ‘sync’). This interaction serves to sustain communication between the two individuals.
• Internal Working Model


  According to Bowlby, through the monotropic attachment, the infant will form an internal working model. This is an internal template for future relationship expectations. If a child has a strong and healthy attachment with their primary attachment figure then they will develop strong and healthy relationships later in life. However, if the child has a negative relationship with their primary attachment figure, they will have negative social and romantic relationships in

  their later life.
• Lorenz


  Konrad Lorenz was an ethologist who carried out research into imprinting, which is seen in ducklings and goslings. With imprinting, offspring follow the first large moving object they see. Lorenz allowed goslings to imprint on him, and as a result they followed him around.
• Multiple Attachments


  Multiple attachments are when attachment behaviours are displayed towards several different people e.g. siblings, grandparents, etc. and are sometimes referred to as secondary attachments. They typically form in the first month after the primary attachment is formed (approximately one year onwards). The number of multiple attachments which develop depends on the social circle to whom the infant is exposed.
• Reciprocity


  Reciprocity is when an infant responds to the actions of another person in a form or turn-taking. With reciprocity, the actions of one person (i.e. the primary caregiver) elicits a response from the other (i.e. the infant). Brezelton et al. (1975) describe this interaction as a ‘dance’ because when a couple dance together they each respond to one another zczc movements and rhythm. Likewise, reciprocity as a caregiver–infant interaction is where the interaction between both individuals flows back and forth.
• The Role of the Father


  The role of the father was not considered in early attachment theory and research, which tended to focus on mother–infant attachments. More recently researchers have focused on the importance of the father in infant development and whether they have a distinct role. One key finding is that fathers have a different role in attachment, one that is more to do with play and stimulation rather than caregiving.
• Romanian Orphan Studies


  Romanian orphan studies have been conducted to investigate the effects of institutionalisation on children who spent time in poor quality Romanian orphanages in the 1990s. For example, Rutter et al. examined a group of 165 Romanian orphans adopted by British families and compared them to a control group of 52 British children adopted at about the same time to measure the effects of institutionalisation.
• Secure


  Secure attachment (also known as Type B) is an attachment pattern identified by Ainsworth using the Strange Situation. This attachment type is willing to explore, but also seeks proximity to the caregiver. They show moderate separation anxiety and moderate stranger anxiety. They both make and require contact when reunited with the mother. 66% of children show this attachment pattern.
• Stages of Attachment


  Stages of attachment have been identified by a number of researchers. For example, Schaffer and Emerson suggested that attachments develop in four stages: asocial stage or pre-attachment, indiscriminate attachment, specific attachment or discriminate attachment and multiple attachment.
• van Ijzendoorn &

  Kroonenberg (1988)


  van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg (1988) conducted a meta-analysis to look at cultural variations in attachment. They compared the rates of secure, insecure–avoidant and insecure–resistant attachments in 32 studies that had been conducted in eight different countries. They found that although secure attachment was the most common in all cultures, there were cultural variations in attachment. Germany had the highest rate of insecure–avoidant and Japan and Israel had the highest rates of insecure–resistant.